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c 


|f?M/l^U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE    OF    EXPERIMENT    STATIONS, 


A.     C,    TRUE,     Direelor. 


RECAP 


THE    EFFECT 


SEVERE  AND  PROLONGED  MlISCULAIl  WORK 


'OOD  CONSUMPTION,  DIGESTION,  AND  METABOLISM, 


AND 

HL-  C-   sia:Ei?,3vr_A-isr,   i^i-i.  id.. 


HE  ME(riANICAE  WORK  AND  EFFICIENCY  OF  BICYCLERS, 


■JR.     C-     C.A.I?,jPE!:N"TE1?,-,     1VL_    fci. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING,    OFFICE, 

1  1)  0  1  , 


QP/yf 


±L3^ 


Calumbta  5BnitJer^ttp 

CoQese  of  ^tpsitnansi  anb  ^urgeonsi 
Hibrarp 


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Bulletin  No.  98. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF   AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE    OF    EXPERIMENT    STATIONS, 

A.    C.    TRUE,    Director. 


THE    EFFECT 

OF 

SEVERE  AND  PROLONGED  MUSCULAR  WORK 

ox 

FOOD  CONSUMPTION,  DIGESTION,  AND  METABOLISM, 

BY 

.\XD 

li-   C-   si3::Bi?,ivi:.A-i\r,  ipn.  id., 

AND 

THE  MECHANICAL  WORK  AND  EFFICIENCY  OF  BICYCLERS, 


:r.  c.  c^^e,i='eiq"tei?,,  iivE.  s. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE, 
19  01. 


1  LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 

Washingto?},  D.  C,  June  i,  1901. 

Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  on  studies  of 
the  effect  of  severe  and  prolonged  muscnlar  work  on  food  consump- 
tion, digestion,  and  metabolism.  The  experiments  were  made  with 
bicycle  racers  in  a  six-da}"  contest  at  the  Madison  Square  Garden, 
New  York  City,  in  December,  1898.  The  investigation  was  conducted 
by  W.  O.  Atwater,  special  agent  in  charge  of  nutrition  investigations, 
and  H.  C.  Sherman,  lecturer  in  chemistry  at  Columbia  University, 
New  York  City.  In  the  nutrition  investigations  conducted  by  the 
Department  under  the  auspices  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to  food  in  connection  with  mus- 
cular work.  Numerous  dietary  studies  of  persons  performing  vaiying 
amounts  of  work  under  approximately  normal  conditions  have  been 
made.  It  was  believed  that  the  present  investigation,  in  which  a  large 
amount  of  severe  work  was  performed  for  a  considerable  period  of 
time,  would  afford  results  interesting  in  themselves  and  valuable  for 
interpreting  the  results  of  other  investigations.  These  studies  consti- 
tute part  of  the  nutrition  investigations  in  charge  of  this  Office  and 
were  conducted  in  accordance  with  instructions  by  its  Director.  In 
carrying  on  the  work  valuable  assistance  was  rendered  b}"  Messrs. 
A.  P.  Bryant,  H.  M.  Burr,  P.  B.  Hawk,  E.  H.  Hodgson,  R.  D.  Milner, 
and  H.  E.  Wells.  The  success  of  the  investigation  depended  in  large 
measure  upon  the  hearty  cooperation  of  the  American  CVcle  Racing 
Association,  under  whose  auspices  the  contest  was  conducted,  and  of 
the  trainers,  Messrs.  John  West,  Joseph  Quirk,  and  Charles  McGue, 
as  well  as  the  riders  themselves,  Messrs.  C.  W.  Miller,  F.  Albert,  and 
H.  Pilkington.  Acknowledgment  should  also  be  made  to  Dr.  E.  E. 
Smith,  through  whose  kindness  the  laboratories  of  Eraser  &  Co.,  of 
which  he  is  director  and  chief  chemist,  were  available. 

The  supplement  on  mechanical  work  and  efficiency  was  contributed 
by  R,  C.  Carpenter,  professor  of  experimental  engineering  at  Cornell 

8 


University.  Professor  Carpenter  in  recent  years  has  given  much  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  the  energy  expended  in  driving  bicycles  and  has 
made  many  experiments.  The  data  and  deductions  from  these  have 
been  embodied,  so  far  as  was  needful,  in  his  present  discussion. 

The  report  is  respectfully  submitted,  with  the  recommendation  that 
it  be  pu])lished  as  Bulletin  No.  98  of  this  Office. 

Respectfully,  A.  C.  True, 

Director. 

Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


CONTENTS 


Page. 
Food  consumption,    digestion,    and   metabolism    op  bicyclers.     By  W.  0. 

Atwater  AND  H.  C.  Sherman 7 

Introduction ^ 7 

Previous  investigations  on  muscular  work  and  the  metabolism  of  nitrogen .  8 

Experiments  with  subjects  working  specifically  for  investigation 9 

Experiments  with  professional  athletes : .  12 

Previous  investigations  upon    muscular  work  and    the  metabolism  of 

energy — Efficiency  of  man  as  a  prime  motor 15 

Occasion  and  plan  of  the  present  inquiry 18 

The  subjects  of  the  experiments 19 

Surroundings  and  experimental  conditions 21 

Daily  record  of  the  race 23 

Analyses  of  food  materials  and  feces .   27 

Description  of  samples  of  food  and  feces  analyzed 28 

Dietary  studies — Statistics  of  food  consumed 31 

Dietary  study  No.  255,  C.  W.  Miller 32 

Dietary  study  No.  256,  F.  Albert  (previous  to  the  race) 34 

Dietary  study  No.  257,  F.  Albert  (during  the  race)  ...  1 35 

Dietary  study  No.  258,  H.  Pilkington 38 

Food  consumption  of  the  bicycle  racers  compared  with  that  of  other 

athletes 42 

Digestion  experiments 45 

Metabolism  of  nitrogen 48 

Balance  of  income  and  outgo  of  nitrogen 50 

Metabolism  of  energj' 52 

Summary 53 

Mechanical  work  and  efficiency  of  bicyclers.     By  E.  C.  Carpenter 57 

Air  resistance 57 

Wheel  resistance 60 

Conclusions  and  remarks 66 

5 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page 
Ftg.  1.  Diagram  of  track  used  for  six-day  racre,  Madison  Square  Garden,  New 

York  City,  December,  1898 21 

2.  Curve  showing  wind  resistance  for  different  sjieeds 5£ 

3.  Cur\'es  showing  bicycle  resistance 62 

6 


FOOD  CONSUMPTION,  DIGESTION,  METABOLISM,  AND  MECHAN- 
ICAL WORK  OF  BICYCLERS. 


FOOD  CONSUMPTION,  DIGESTION,  AND  METABOLISM  OF 

BICYCLERS. 

By  W.  O.  Atwater,  Ph.  P.,  and  H.  C.  Sherman,  Ph.  D.    ■ 
INTRODUCTION. 

One  very  important  phase  of  the  science  of  nutrition  is  the  relation 
of  food  to  muscular  work.  This  involves  such  problems  as  the  source 
of  muscular  energy  and  the  economical  production  of  useful  work. 
While  naturally  the  greater  part  of  the  experimenting  along  such 
lines  has  been  conducted  with  animals,  a  considerable  number  of  inves- 
tigations conducted  under  the  auspices  of  this  Office  and  the  earlier 
work  at  the  Connecticut  Storrs  Station  have  had  to  do  with  the  sub- 
ject of  muscular  work  in  man.  Dietary  studies^  have  been  made  with 
(1)  professional  men  and  others  performing  little  muscular  work;  (2) 
farmers,  mechanics,  and  others  performing  a  moderate  amount  of 
muscular  work;  (3)  .mechanics  and  others  at  severe  labor;  (4)  men 
performing  for  experimental  purposes  rather  more  than  their  usual 
amount  of  work;  and  (5)  college  athletes.  In  some  of  the  experiments 
made  with  the  respiration  calorimeter  the  effects  of  muscular  work 
were  studied,*^  as  was  also  the  case  in  the  digestion  and  nitrogen 
metabolism  experiments  conducted  at  the  Universit}^  of  Tennessee.^ 

In  order  to  judge  of  the  various  factors  which  affect  any  such  sub- 
ject and  to  obtain  data  for  comparison  it  is  generally  desirable  to 
carry  on  experiments  and  make  observations  under  unusual  conditions. 
In  December,  1898,  a  six-day  bicycle  race  was  held  in  Madison  Square 
Garden,  New  York  City,  in  connection  with  which  it  was  found  possi- 
ble to  study  the  food  consumption  of  three  of  the  contestants  as  well 
as  the  digestibility  of  a  mixed  diet,  the  metabolism  of  nitrogen,  and 

1  For  details  of  these  studies  see  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
Buls.  21,  29,  31,  32,  35,  37,  38,  -40,  46,  52,  53,  54,  55,  71,  75,  and  84,  and  Connectticut 
Storrs  Sta.  Rpts.  1891-1899. 

HT.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Buls.  44,  63,  and  69. 

^U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  89. 


other  problems  pertaining  to  the  subject.  The  race  necessitated  severe 
and  long'  continued  muscular  exertion.  An  unusiuil  oppt)rtunity  was 
thus  offered  to  study  food  in  its  relation  to  muscular  work,  and  it  is 
believed  the  results  will  prove  interesting  in  themselves  as  well  as 
useful  in  interpreting  the  results  of  other  investigations. 

Before  describing  the  experiments  conducted  with  the  bicycle  racers 
a  brief  summary  of  the  investigations  with  man  upon  the  effect  of 
severe  or  long  continued  muscular  work  on  metabolism  which  have 
been  conducted  by  other  observers  seems  necessary.  Those  here 
cited  have  to  do  with  muscular  work  and  its  effect  on  the  metabolism 
of  nitrogen  and  energ3^ 

PREVIOUS  INVESTIGATIONS  ON  MUSCULAR  WORK  AND  THE 
METABOLISM  OF  NITROGEN. 

Liebig,  who  divided  foods  into  plastic  (nitrogenous)  and  respiratory 
(nonnitrogenous)  nutrients,  maintained  that  the  former  were  the  sources 
of  muscular  energy.  This  view  was  contested  on  theoretical  grounds  by 
Mayer/  who  held  that  the  muscular  system  was  a  machine  which  used 
for  its  fuel  the  carbonaceous  and  not  necessarily  the  nitrogenous  ma- 
terials brought  to  it  by  the  blood.  Frankland  called  attention  to  a  paper 
by  John  Mayow  entitled ' '  De  motu  musculari  et  spiritibus  animalibus,"  ^ 
about  a  century  before  Priestly's  discovery  of  oxygen,  in  which  it  is 
stated  that  muscular  power  arises  from  the  combustion  in  the  muscles 
of  fat  brought  by  the  blood  with  a  gas  which  the  lungs  take  up  in 
respiration. 

Lawes  and  Gilbert  in  1854  ^  showed  that  with  animals  under  uniform 
conditions  as  regards  exercise  the  amount  of  excreted  nitrogen  de- 
pends upon  the  amount  ingested,  while  C.  Voit  *  a  few  years  later 
demonstrated  that  under  some  conditions  at  least  an  animal  with  a 
uniform  ingestion  of  protein  may  perform  an  increased  amount  of 
muscular  work  without  increasing  the  excretion  of  urea.  Lehmann 
held  that  the  excretion  of  nitrogen  was  dependent  mainly  upon  the 
diet,  but  that  when  the  latter  was  uniform  the  elimination  of  urea  was 
increased  b}''  muscular  exercise. 

Of  the  many  investigations  ^  on  the  effect  of  muscular  work  upon 

^  Die  organiHche  Bewegung  in  ihreiii  Zusanniienhaiige  niit  deni  Stoff wechsel.  Heil- 
bronn,  1845,  p.  54  et  seq. 

^  Opera  omnia  medico-physica.     Hagaii  coinituin,  1681. 

^Chem.  Centbl.,  1867,  p.  770. 

■*  Unter-Huchungen  uVjer  den  Einfluss  des  Koclinalzes,  des  Kaffees  und  der  Muskel- 
bewegungen  auf  den  St(jffweclisel,  1860;  ab«.  in  Cbeni.  Centbl.,  1867,  p.  774. 

'A  oondse  Hunnnary  of  186  experiments  with  men  and  199  with  animals  in  which 
the  effeets  of  musi-nlar  work  ui)on  the  metaljoli.sm  of  nitrogen  was  stndied  (in  a 
nmn})er  oi  cases  the  observations  included  the  metabolism  of  carbon  and  energy) 
may  be  f(jund  in  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  45,  pp.  118- 
135,  268-283,  355-363,  398,  411. 


9 


the  excretion  of  nitrogen  we  cite  onl}"  those  which  are  in  some  way 
similar  to  that  here  reported.  These  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
(1)  experiments  in  which  the  subject  and  his  diet  were  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  experimenter  and  the  work  was  performed  for  the  purpose 
of  iiivestigation,  and  (2)  experiments  in  which  the  diet  was  not  under 
control,  the  subjects  being  professional  athletes  performing  feats  of 
endurance  in  public,  and  not  primaril}^  for  experimental  purposes. 
A  brief  summary  of  the  more  important  investigations  of  this  nature 
which  we  have  found  follows. 

EXPERIMENTS    WITH    SUBJECTS    WORKING    SPECIFICALLY   FOR 

INVESTIGATION. 

Fick  and  Wislicenus  published  in  1866  ^  the  account  of  their  investi- 
gation upon  the  relation  of  exercise  to  the  elimination  of  nitrogen. 
These  investigators  experimented  upon  themselves,  the  work  per- 
formed being  the  ascent  of  the  Faulhorn,  about  6,500  feet.  From 
noon  on  August  29  until  7  p.  m.,  August  30,  they  consumed  onh^  non- 
nitrogenous  food,  the  diet  being  made  up  essentially  of  fat,  starch, 
sugar,  tea,  wine,  and  beer.  • 

The  experiments  proper  began  at  6.15  p.  m.  on  August  29,  when  the 
bladder  was  emptied.  The  urine  formed  from  this  time  until  5.10 
the  following  morning  was  collected  and  called  "night  urine."  The 
following  8  hours  and  10  minutes  were  occupied  in  the  ascent  and  the 
urine  formed  during  this  time  was  called  the  "work  urine."  The 
urine  for  five  hours  and  forty  minutes  after  the  ascent  was  collected 
as  "after  work  urine,"  and  that  during  the  night  following  was  also 
collected.  The  two  subjects  eliminated  nearl}^  the  same  amounts  of 
nitrogen,  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table  1. — Experiments  of  Fick  and  Wislicenus  on  elimination  of  nitrogen  by  the  kidneys. 


Designation. 

Period  covered. 

Nitroger  elimi- 
nated. 

Subject 
A. 

Subject 
B. 

"Niglit  urine" 

Aug.  29, 6.15  p.  m.,  to  Aug.  30, 5.10  a.  m.  (10  hours  55 

minutes). 
Aug.  30, 5.10  a.  m.  to  1.20  p.  m.  (8  hours  10  minutes) . 

Aug.  30, 1.20  p.  m.  to  7  p.  m.  (5  hours  40  minutes) 

Aug.  30,  7  p.m.,  to  Aug. 31,  5.30  a.m.  (10  hours  30 

minutes). 

O-rams. 
6.92 

3.31 
2.43 
4.82 

Grams. 
6.68 

"  Work  urine  " 

3.13 

"  After-work  urine  " 

"Night  urine  "a 

2.42 
5  35 

o  At  the  beginning  of  the  period  in  which  this  urine  was  collected  the  subjects  consumed  a  hearty 
meal,  consisting  largely  of  meat. 

These  authors  calculated  the  consumption  of  protein  corresponding 
to  this  excretion  of  nitrogen,  and  assumed  that  protein  might  yield  on 
combustion  an  amount  of  energy  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  heats  of 

'  Vrtljschr.  Naturf.  Gesell.  Zurich,  10  (1865),  p.  317;  abs.  in  Chem.  Centbl.,  1867, 
pp.  769-782,  * 


10 

combustion  of  the  c-arbon  and  hydrog-eii  contained  in  it.  From  this 
computation  they  concluded  that  the  protein  consumed  could  have 
yielded  only  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  the  energy  required  to 
lift  the  weights  of  their  bodies  to  the  height  ascended,  while  if  the 
work  of  forward  progression  and  the  internal  work  be  taken  into 
account  the  discrepancy  would  become  much  greater. 

Frankland^  having-  determined  the  actual  heats  of  combustion  of 
protein  and  urea,  calculated  the  energy  availal)le  fi-om  the  consumption 
of  protein  by  Fick  and  Wislicenus  to  be  only  about  two-thirds  as 
much  as  these  investigators  had  supposed. 

Thus  it  was  clearly  shown  that  the  nitrogen  eliminated  during  and 
immediately  after  the  work  could  not  account  for  enough  protein  to 
yield  the  required  energy,  and,  indeed,  that  the  nuiscular  work  did  not 
cause  an  increased  elimination  of  nitrogen  during  or  immediately  niter 
the  exertion.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  such  an  increase  does  not 
normallj'  occur.  The  conditions  here  were  abnormal,  in  that  the 
subjects  were  in  a  state  of  "nitrogen  starvation,"  and  the  observa- 
tions were  not  continued  as  long  after  the  exercise  as  more  recent 
experiments  have  shown  to  be  necessar}"  in  order  to  obtain  all  of  the 
extra  nitrogen  eliminated  in  connection  with  muscular  work. 

Parkes"  published  in  1867  the  results  of  a  series  of  experiments  made 
with  two  soldiers  on  a  uniform  mixed  diet,  with  and  without  muscular 
work.  Each  working  period  was  of  three  days'  duration,  and  was 
preceded  and  followed  b}^  periods  of  two  or  four  days  during  which 
the  subjects  followed  their  usual  occupations.  We  infer  that  the 
usual  occupations  required  comparativeh'  little  muscular  exertion.  It 
was  found  that  the  work,  which  consisted  in  walking  on  level  ground, 
and  did  not,  b}^  Parkes's  computations,  exceed  160,000  kilogram- 
meters  per  day,  caused  a  small  increase  in  the  excretion  of  nitrogen. 
This  increased  excretion,  however,  continued  for  some  time  after  the 
completion  of  the  extra  nuiscular  work. 

In  1882  North '^  expei'imeiited  upon  himself,  taking  great  pains  to 
secui'e  uniformity  in  his  diet,  and  doing-  on  one  day  of  each  expiu'iment 
a  considerable  amount  of  woi'k,  walking  from  30  to  47  miles  and  car- 
rying a  load  of  about  27  pounds.  As  the  weight  of  the  body  is  not 
given  the  amount  of  work  can  not  be  calculated,  but  it  is  evidently 
considerably  greater  than  that  done  in  Parkes's  experiments,  which 
North  consideri^l  not  sufficiently  severe.  The  increased  elimination 
of  nitrogen  with  th(^  muscular  work  was  more  immediate  and  more 
pronounced  than  in  Parkes's  experiments.  ' 

'Phil.  Mag.,  4.  ser.,  32  (1867),  p.  182.  Reprinted  in  Experiiiicntal  Researches  in 
Pure,  Applied,  and  Physical  Chemistry.     Loiidon,  1877,  p.  938. 

•■'Proc.  Roy.  8oc.  [London],  1(5  (1867),  ]•.  4r).  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Kxi)eri- 
ment  Stations  Bui.  45,  pp.  119,  129. 

•'Pn)c,.  Roy.  Soe.  [London],  36  (1882),  p.  14.  U.  8.  iJept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Kxperiiuent 
Stations  P.iil.  4r^,  pp.  I'ZO,  131. 


11 

It  i.s  to  bo  noted,  however,  that  in  both  of  these  investigations,  in 
which  the  diet  was  the  same  in  the  periods  of  work  as  in  those  of  rest, 
the  increased  metabolism  of  nitrogenous  material,  indicated  b}"  the 
increased  elimination  of  nitrogen,  ina>j  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that 
no  increase  of  fuel  ingredients  was  supplied  to  meet  the  increased 
demand  for  energy  when  work  was  done. 

Zasietski^  made  a  number  of  experiments,  each  including  a  rest  and 
a  work  period,  in  which  milk  was  the  only  food  allowed,  but  the 
quantit}^  was  not  limited.  The  work  consisted  in  walking  from  9  a.  m. 
to  9  p.  m.,  with  short  rests.  The  subjects  were  mostly  peasants  or 
students,  and  probably  had  not  trained  for  the  exertion.  In  general 
no  more  milk  was  consumed  on  the  working  days  than  on  the  da3^s  of 
rest,  while  the  average  excretion  of  nitrogen  was  9  per  cent  greater. 

Practically  all  of  the  recent  experimenting  with  men  sustains  the 
view  that  muscular  work  normally  results  in  an  increased  excretion  of 
nitrogen  when  the  work  is  at  all  severe  and  there  is  not  a  correspond- 
ing increase  in  the  fuel  ingredients  (fats  or  carbohydrates)  of  the  diet. 
It  also  implies  that  the  increased  output  of  nitrogen  continues  after 
the  work  stops,  so  that  if  the  experiment  continues  l3ut  one  day  the 
larger  part  of  the  increase  may  be  found  on  the  succeeding  day. 
Among  these  investigations  maj^  be  mentioned  those  of  Oppenheim,^ 
North, ^  Burkalov,*  Argutinski,"^  Zuntz,"  Krummacher,^  Pfliiger,^^  Paton,^ 
and  Punine.^"  Hirschfeld"  found  no  change  in  the  nitrogen  excretion 
after  exercise,  but  the  amount  of  exercise  taken  was  relatively  small 
and  the  fuel  value  of  the  diet  was  high  (3,700  to  3,800  calories). 

All  of  the  investigations  above  mentioned  differ  from  those  reported 
herewith  in  that  the  subjects  were  not  professional  athletes  and  did 
not  perform  an  amount  of  work  at  all  approximating  to  that  done  in 
the  cases  here  reported.  The  same  is  true,  to  some  extent,  of  the 
recent  experiments  of  Dunlop,  Paton,  Stockman,  and  Maccadam,^'  but 
as  the  amount  of  work  performed  in  these  was  quite  large,  and  as  one 

'Vrach,  6  (1887),  p.  866.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui. 
45,  pp.  121, 122,  131. 

2  Arch.  Physiol.  [Pfltiger],  23  (1881),  p.  497. 

»Proc.  Royal  Soc.  [London],  36  (1884),  p.  11. 

''Vrach,  9  (1888),  p.  66. 

sArch.  Physiol.  [Pfliiger],  46  (1889-90),  p.  552. 

*  Arch.  Physiol.  [Du  Bois-Reymond],  1894,  p.  541.  It  should  he  noted  that  Zuntz 
believes  the  increased  proteid  metabolism  to  occur  only  when  the  exercise  is 
sufficiently  severe  to  cause  labored  breathing. 

'Arch.  Physiol.  [Pfliiger],  47  (1890),  p.  451;  Ztschr.  Biol.,  33  (1896),  p.  108. 

8 Arch.  Physiol.  [Pfluger],  50  (1891),  p.  98. 

9 Lab.  Reports  Royal  College  Phys.  Edin.,  3  (1891),  p.  241. 

^^  Liaug.  Diss.  St.  Petersburg,  1894;  abs.  in  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations  Bui.  45,  pp.  123-126,  134. 

"Arch.  Path.  Anat.  u.  Physiol.  [Virchow],  121  (1890),  p.  504. 

12  Jour.  Physiol.,  22  (1897),  pp.  69-98. 


12 

of  the  objects  was  to  study  the  effect  of  training,  they  are  of  special 
interest  in  this  connection.  A  brief  account  of  this  investigation 
follows. 

Five  experiments  were  made,  all  with  men.  In  three  of  these  the 
effect  of  moderately  severe  muscular  exercise  was  studied,  in  one  the 
effect  of  sweating,  and  in  one  the  effect  of  massage.  The  general 
arrangement  was  similar  in  all  cases.  The  subject  was  put  on  a  rig- 
idly fixed  diet  of  his  own  selection  for  a  period  of  seven  days,  the 
muscular  work,  sweating,  or  massage  occurring  on  the  fourth  day. 
This  gave  a  sufficiently  long  fore  period  to  show  changes  on  the  experi- 
ment day  and  a  sufficiently  long  after  period  to  show  later  changes. 

Nitrogen  was  determined  in  the  food,  feces,  and  urine.  In  the 
urine,  in  addition  to  total  nitrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  uric 
acid  were  determined  and  in  some  cases  sodium,  chlorin,  preformed 
ammonia  and  "extractive"  nitrogen  as  well. 

Massage  produced  no  marked  change  in  the  metabolism  and  hence 
it  was  inferred  by  the  experimenters  that  the  changes  observed  to 
result  from  severe  muscular  exercise  are  not  due  to  the  physical 
effects  of  an  increased  lymph  flow.  The  only  marked  effect  of  sweat- 
ing upon  the  urine  is  a  diminution  of  water  and  of  sodium  chlorid. 
Independently  of  sweating  or  of  the  condition  of  training,  severe  mus- 
cular exertion  increased  the  excretion  of  nitrogen  and  sulphur,  the 
increase  of  nitrogen  being  due  mainly  to  increased  urea,  although  some 
was  due  to  increased  creatinin  and  preformed  ammonia.  When  the 
subject  was  in  poor  training  there  was  also  an  increase  in  the  excre- 
tion of  uric  acid,  nitrogenous  extractives,  and  phosphoric  acid. 

These  changes  in  urine  were  held  by  these  investigators  to  indicate 
that  excessive  muscular  work  causes  an  increased  katabolism  of  pro- 
tein, this  being  simply  "muscle  proteid"  if  the  subject  is  in  good 
training,  while  if  the  subject  is  in  poor  training  "this  consumption  of 
muscle  proteid  is  accompanied  by  the  consumption  of  the  proteid  of 
other  tissues  which  contain  nucleo-proteids  as  shown  by  the  increased 
excretion  of  uric  acid,  extractive  nitrogen,  and  phosphorus.  There 
may  be  a  withdrawal  of  proteids  from  other  structures  to  effect  repair 
in  muscles,  similar  to  the  transference  of  material  seen  in  starvation, 
the  proteid  portion  being  retained  while  the  nucleo-acid  portion  is 
excreted." 

Of  course  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  these  experiments  the 
subject  was  not  allowed  to  increase  his  diet  upon  the  working  day  or 
the  days  following.  This  may  in  part  account  for  the  occurrence 
of  phenomena  similar  to  those  of  fasting. 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  PROFESSIONAL  ATHLETES. 

In  the  following  pag(\s  are  summarized  the  experiments  of  the 
second  class,  namely,  those  in  which  the  diet  was  not  under  control, 


18 

the  subjects  being  professional  athletes  performing*  feats  of  endurance 
in  public  and  not  primarily  for  experimental  purposes. 

Flint's^  studies  with  the  professional  pedestrian  Weston,  which  were 
conducted  in  New,york  in  1870,  are,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  first,  and 
in  some  respects  the  best,  of  investigations  of  this  class.  For  three 
consecutive  five-day  periods,  during  the  second  of  which  he  walked  317 
miles,  Weston  was  continuously  under  observation.  The  food,  which 
during  the  walk  consisted  chieflj^  of  beef  extract,  oatmeal  gruel,  and 
raw  eggs,  was  carefully  weighed  and  the  nitrogen  therein  computed 
for  the  most  part  from  Payen's  tables,  although  some  analyses  were 
made.  Nitrogen  was  determined  in  the  feces,  and  urea,  uric  acid,  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  phosphoric  acid  in  the  urine.  The  method  for 
determining  the  uric  acid  was  faulty  and  gave  too  low  results.  Even 
had  this  not  been  the  case  there  would  have  been  an  appreciable 
amount  of  undetermined  nitrogen  in  the  urine.  But  in  spite  of  the 
imperfections  of  the  anal34ical  work,  the  investigation  has  great  value, 
chiefly  because  of  the  long  fore  and  after  periods.  The  results  are 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


Table  2. — Flint's  observations  on  daily  nitrogen  metabolism  by  Weston. 


Occupation. 

Dura- 
tion of 
test. 

Nitrogen. 

Period. 

In  food. 

In 
urine. 

In 
feces. 

Gain  ( +)  or 
loss(-). 

Fore  period 

Comparative  rest 

Days. 

5 
'       5 

5 

Grams. 
22.0 
13.2 
28.6 

Grams. 
18.7 
21.6 
22.0 

GraTHS. 
1.4 
1.6 
2.2 

6i-ams. 
+  1.9 
-10.0 
+  4.4 

Working  period 

After  period 

Walking  62  miles  per  day 

Rest 

It  will  be  seen  that  during  the  five  days  of  comparative  rest  before 
the  walk  Weston  consumed  food  containing  (according  to  Flint's  cal- 
culation) 22  grams  of  nitrogen  per  day  and  eliminated  18.7  grams  in 
the  urine  and  1.4  grams  in  the  feces,  storing  1.9  grams  per  day  in  the 
body.  During  the  walk  he  consumed  only  13.2  grams  of  nitrogen 
per  day  but  eliminated  in  urine  and  feces  23.2  grams,  making  a  daily 
loss  of  10  grams  of  nitrogen  from  the  body.  During  the  five  days 
after  the  race  he  consumed  28.6  grams  of  nitrogen  per  day  and  elim- 
inated 24.2  grams,  so  that  4.4  grams  were  stored  in  the  body  daily. 
This  investigation  shows  in  a  striking  manner  how  the  body  may  draw 
upon  its  own  protein  for  the  performance  of  muscular  work  and  after- 
wards replace  the  material  thus  used.  It  should  be  noted,  however, 
that  the  amount  of  food  consumed  by  Weston  during  his  walk  was 
small.  The  fuel  value  of  the  diet  and  the  relation  of  this  to  the 
mechanical  work  performed  are  discussed  beyond  (see  pp.  14  and  56). 

Six  years   later  Pavy^  investigated  Weston's   metabolism  during 

'  New  York  Med.  Jour.,  13  (1870),  p.  653. 
^Lancet  [Lomlon],  1896,  I  and  II  passim. 


14 


three  of  his  professional  walks  in  England.  The  observations  covered 
(1)  a  two-day  walk  without  fore  or  after  periods,  (2)  a  three-da}^  walk 
with  fore  and  after  periods  of  one  day  each,  and  (3)  a  six-day  walk 
with  fore  and  after  periods  of  six  days  each.  The  food  consisted 
largeh'  of  beef  tea,  eggs,  sea  moss  farina,  and  jelly;  some  meat  and 
bread  were  also  taken  and  some  amounts  of  brandy  and  champagne 
were  used.  An  approximate  record  of  the  food  was  kept  and  its  nitro- 
gen content  was  calculated  without  analysis.  During  the  after  period 
of  the  third  experiment  the  food  was  not  recorded.  Urea  and  uric 
acid  were  determined  in  the  urine.  The  results  are  briefl}'  summarized 
in  the  table  herewith,  the  nitrogen  in  the  urine  being  calculated  by 
the  present  writers  from  the  amounts  of  urea  and  uric  acid  found. 
The  data  are  not  sufficient  to  show  the  nitrogen  balance. 

Taule  3. — Sammanj  of  Par-ifs  observations  on  nitrogen  metubolism  by  Weston. 


Period. 


First  experiment 

Second  experiment: 

Fore  period 

Working  period  . 

After  period 

Third  experiment: 

Fore  period 

Working  period  . 

After  period 


Occupation. 


Dura- 
tion of 
test. 


Walking  90  miles  per  day. 


Rest 

Walking  88  miles  per  day. 
Rest 


Comparative  rest 

Walking 

Rest 


Days. 
2 


Nitrogen  per  day. 


In  food.   In  urine. 


Grams. 
7.4 

3.3.9 
4.5.9 
41.8 

31.0 
43.  .'5 

(?) 


Grams. 
32.8 

19.6 
34.8 
15.2 

20.6 
33.8 
19.7 


It  is  noticeable  that  on  the  two  days  of  the  first  walk,  when  the  food 
consumed  contained  only  7.4  grams  nitrogen  per  day,  the  nitrogen 
excretion  was  practically  the  same  as  on  other  walking  da3^s.  While 
these  experiments  are  not  suificiently  complete  to  be  veiy  satisfactory, 
they  agree  with  those  of  Flint  in  showing  a  large  excretion  of  nitro- 
gen on  the  walking  dajH.  In  the  second  and  third  of  these  experi 
ments,  however,  the  food  consumed  contained  so  much  protein  that 
there  appears  to  have  been  little  if  an}^  loss  of  bod}'^  nitrogen. 

In  ls78  Jones^  collected  and  anal3^zed  the  urine  passed  by  the  pro- 
fessional pedestrian  Schmehl  during  four  of  six  consecutive  days  in 
which  he  walked  a  total  of  500  miles.  The  average  daily  excretion  of 
nitrogen  in  the  form  of  urea  and  uric  acid  was  25  grams.  The  amount 
and  composition  of  the  food  were  not  recorded  with  suflicient  accuracy 
to  indicate  whether  the  body  gained  or  lost  nitrogen. 

In  1S84  Weston  undertook  and  finished  successful!}^  a  walk  of  50 
miles  per  day  for  100  consecutive  days,  8unda,ys  excluded.  The  last 
300  miles  were  walked  on  a  level  indoor  track  and  the  food  consumed 
and  the  metabolism  of  nitrogen  were  observed  by  Blyth.^  The  food 
was  weighed  or  measur(id  and  the  nutrients  calculated,  as  Blyth  states, 

1  New  Orleans  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.,  5  (l.S77-7,S),  i).  856. 
M^roc;.  Roy.  .Soc.  [London],  37  (1KS4),  j..  4(j. 


15 

from  "anal3^ses  in  n\y  own  work  on  "Food,'  supplemented  by  the 
mean  numbers  given  in  Konig-'s  'Nahrungsmittel,' and  in  two  instances 
b}^  analj^ses  of  the  actual  foods  consumed."  The  urine  for  each  day 
was  collected  ancl  analyzed.  The  feces  passed  on  the  last  five  days, 
Tuesday  to  Saturday  inclusive,  were  united  and  assumed  to  represent 
the  food  of  the  five  da3"s — Monday  to  Frida}^  of  the  same  week. 
The  food  on  Saturday  being  somewhat  exceptional,  Blyth  prefers  to 
omit  this  day  from  the  average,  especially  as  the  feces  represent  only 
the  other  five.  The  average  nitrogen  for  these  five  days  (Monda}-  to 
Frida}")  was:  In  food,  37.2  grams;  in  urine,  25.5,  and  in  feces,  9.8, 
leaving  1.9  grams  per  da}^  apparently  stored  in  the  body.  In  addition 
to  235.8  grams  of  protein  the  average  daih^  diet  was  estimated  to  fur- 
nish Q'i.6  grams  of  fat  and  799.9  grams  of  carbohydrates.  This, 
according  to  our  usual  method  of  calculation,  would  furnish  4,850 
calories  of  energy  per  da3^  This  experiment  differs  from  smy  of  the 
others  in  that  when  it  was  begun  the  subject  had  already"  been  under- 
going the  same  severe  exercise  for  a  long  time — nearly  four  months. 

Brj^ant  ^  has  calculated,  from  estimates  furnished  by  Miller's  trainer, 
the  nutrients  consumed  by  Miller  during  the  six-daj^  bicycle  race  at 
New  York  in  1897,  a  year  before  the  present  experiment.  According 
to  this  estimate  the  diet  contained  on  an  average  262  grams  of  protein 
and  6,100  calories  per  dsiv.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  nitrogen  excre- 
tion during  these  da3"s,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  an3"  con- 
siderable part  of  this  large  amount  of  protein  was  stored  in  the  body. 
"That  in  this  case  the  diet  was  not  greatl3^  at  variance  with  the  needs 
of  the  bod3^  is  indicated  b3^  the  fact  that  there  was  but  little  change  in 
bod3^  weight  during  the  six  da3^s." 

In  general  all  of  these  observations  indicate  that  well-trained  pro- 
fessional athletes  when  engaged  in  severe  muscular  exertion  metabolize 
relativel3'  large  amounts  of  protein,  the  bod3"  tissue  being  drawn 
upon  unless  the  protein  of  the  food  is  very  abundant.  Of  course  the 
amounts  of  carboh3"drates  and  fats  in  the  diet  will  have  a  most  impor- 
tant influence,  a  fact  which  was  not  f ull3^  appreciated  b3^  the  earlier 
investigators. 

PREVIOUS  INVESTIGATIONS  UPON  MUSCULAR  WORK  AND  THE 
METABOLISM  OF  ENERGY— EFFICIENCY  OF  MAN  AS  A  PRIME 
MOTOR. 

Hirn,^  as  earl3'  as  1856-57,  attempted  an  investigation  of  the  source 
of  muscular  energ3^  and  the  mechanical  efiicienc3'  of  the  human  organ- 
ism. For  this  latter  purpose  he  emplo3^ed  a  sort  of  calorimeter  to 
measure  the  heat  given  off'  from  the  body.     The  calorimeter  was  a 

'Diet.  andHyg.  Gaz.,  15  (1899),  p.  393. 

^  L' Equivalent  niecaniqne  de  la  Chaleur,  1858.  Rewritten  under  the  title  La  Ther- 
modynamique  et  1' etude  du  travail  ehez  les  etres  vivants.     Paris,  1887. 


16 

small  room  or  chamber  inside  of  which  the  subject  was  placed  during 
the  experiment.  Within  the  calorimeter  was  a  treadwheel  turned  by 
power  from  outside.  The  muscular  work  was  done  and  measured  by 
treading  the  wheel,  the  arrangements  being  such  that  the  work  done 
by  the  subject  during  one  revolution  of  the  wheel  was  estimated  to  be 
equivalent  to  that  required  to  raise  his  body  through  a  distance  equal 
to  the  circumference  of  the  wheel.  This  was  "positive "  work.  There 
was  also  a  provision  for  so-called  "negative"  work,  which  is  not 
included  in  the  discussion. 

The  total  energy  metabolized  by  the  body  during  the  experiment 
was  assumed  to  be  represented  by  the  sum  of  the  heat  given  ojff  from 
the  body  as  measured  by  the  calorimeter  and  the  heat  equivalent  of 
the  muscular  work  as  determined  by  the  treadwheel.  The  heat  equiva- 
lent of  the  work  done  divided  by  this  sum  was  taken  as  the  measure 
of  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  the  subject.  The  mechanical  efficiency 
was  thus  measured  in  percentage  of  the  total  energy  metabolized  in 
the  body.  At  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  the  subject  worked 
and  breathed  in  the  calorimeter  chamber  until  the  temperature  had 
become  constant,  when  the  remeasurements  were  commenced.  Each 
experiment  lasted  from  40  to  60  minutes,  according  to  the  abilit}'^  of 
the  subject  to  sustain  the  labor  without  discomfort.  Experiments 
were  made  upon  five  subjects — three  men,  a  lymphatic  youth  of  18,  and 
a  strong  young  woman  of  the  same  age.  The  efficiencies  varied  from 
17  per  cent  in  the  case  of  the  ' '  very  lymphatic  "  youth  to  25  per  cent 
in  the  case  of  a  strong  laborer  47  years  old.  These  calculations  evi- 
dently make  no  allowance  for  the  heat  given  off  from  the  body  when 
in  a  state  of  rest.  If  such  allowance  were  made,  the  figures  for  effi- 
ciency would  of  course  become  higher.  Naturally  the  experimental 
methods  used  at  this  time  were  not  very  accurate.  Hirn  himself 
recognized  this  fact  and  wished  to  repeat  his  experiments.  Chauveau ' 
has  also  criticised  the  work  and  pointed  out  the  modifications  which 
should  have  been  introduced,  and  with  which  he  hopes  to  repeat  the 
work.  Nevertheless  the  investigation  is  of  decided  interest  as  being 
the  first,  and  for  many  years  the  best,  of  its  kind. 

Blyth,*^  in  reporting  his  observations  on  Weston,  gives  estimates  of 
the  amount  of  work  performed  by  the  latter,  but  does  not  calculate 
the  fuel  value  of  the  diet  nor  discuss  the  question  of  mechanical  effi- 
ciency. 

Zuntz  and  his  associates  have  given  considerable  attention  to  the 
subject  of  muscular  work  and  metabolism,  experimenting  upon  differ- 
ent animals,  including  man,  and  with  different  forms  of  work.  The 
general  method  in  all  cases  involved  the  determination,  by  means  of 

1  Arch,  rhysiol.  N(jnn.  et  Path.,  5.  ser.,  9  (1897),  p.  229. 
^Proc.  Roy.  Soo.  [London],  37  (1884),  p.  46. 


17 

the  Zuntz  respiration  apparatus,  of  the  kinds  and  amounts  of  material 
oxidized  in  the  body,  and  the  calculation  of  the  total  energy  liberated. 
The  external  muscular  work  was  either  measured  directly  or  calculated 
from  the  weig-ht  of" the  subject,  including  in  some  cases  the  weight  of  a 
burden  carried,  and  the  horizontal  and  perpendicular  distance  walked  or 
climbed.  A  careful  distinction  was  made  between  the  energy  metab- 
olized in  the  performance  of  the  ordinary  functions  of  the  bodj^,  i.  e., 
internal  or  physiological  work,  and  the  extra  energy  metabolized  in 
connection  with  the  external  work.  The  latter  was  calculated  by 
taking  the  total  amount  of  energy  metabolized  during  a  period  of  work 
and  subtracting  from  it  the  amount  metabolized  by  the  body  during  a 
corresponding  period  of  rest.  The  difference  was  taken  as  represent- 
ing the  amount  of  energy  metabolized  for  the  performance  of  the 
external  work.  Dividing  the  energy  of  this  external  muscular  work 
by  the  energy  especiall}^  metabolized  for  its  performance  giv^es  the 
percentage  mechanical  efficiency  of  the  subject. 

In  a  comparatively  recent  summary  of  the  investigations  Zuntz^  has 
stated  that  about  35  per  cent  of  the  extra  energy  of  the  food  used  in 
connection  with  the  external  muscular  work  is  available  for  that  work, 
practically  the  same  value  being  obtained  for  horses  and  dogs  as  for 
men.  Kellner  and  Wolff,^  experimenting  with  horses  by  a  radically 
different  method,  have  reached  practically  the  same  result. 

This  interesting  agreement  is  the  more  surprising  in  view  of  the 
conclusion  reached  by  Kronecker  and  his  associates,  Schnyder,  and 
others,  in  studying  the  relation  of  muscular  work  to  the  production  of 
carbon  dioxid,  that  the  amount  of  the  latter  produced  depends  less 
upon  the  amount  of  work  performed  than  upon  the  intensit}^  of  the 
exertion,  and  that  the  efficiency  varies  greatl}^  with  the  condition  of 
the  subject  and  his  familiarity  with  the  work.  Schnyder^  gives  an 
excellent  digest  of  the  work  of  this  character  as  well  as  that  of  Zuntz 
and  his  followers. 

Bryant,*  using  a  modification  of  Carpenter's  ®  formula  for  computing 
the  work  done  in  driving  a  bicycle,  and  reducing  the  fuel  value  of 
Miller's  diet  by  the  amount  believed  to  be  necessary  to  maintain  the 
body  at  rest,  concludes  that  this  rider  maintained  during  six  days  of 
almost  continuous  bicycle  racing  an  efficiency  of  36  per  cent. 

Atwater  and  Rosa*^  have  determined  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  a 
man  not  accustomed  to  severe  exercise  who  worked  in  this  case  eight 
hours  a  day  on  an  ergometer,  which  consisted  of  a  stationary  bicycle 

1  Experiment  Station  Record,  7  (1895-96),  p.  547. 

^Landw.  Jahrb.,24  (1895),  p.  125;  Experiment  Station  Record,  7  (1895-96),  p.  611. 

^Ztschr.  Biol.,  33  (1896),  pp.  289-319. 

^Diet.  and  Hyg.  Gaz.,  15  (1899),  p.  393. 

^L.  A.  W.  Bulletin  27  (1898),  pp.  401,  445,  466. 

"Phys.  Rev.,  9  (1899),  p.  248. 

20695— No.  98—01 2 


belted  to  a  .small  dynamo.  The  whole  was  placed  in  a  respiration  cal- 
orimeter,^ ill  ^vhich  the  subject  remained  for  several  days.  The  total 
amount  of  heat  g-iven  off  was  accuratel}-  measured  by  means  of  the 
calorimeter.  The  work  done  was  determined  b}'  measuring  the  current 
produced  b}^  the  dynamo.  The  electrical  energy  was  then  transformed 
into  heat  and  its  amount  was  included  in  the  total  heat  measured  by 
the  calorimeter.  In  addition  to  these  heat  measurements  the  total 
income  and  outgo  of  nitrogen,  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  water  were 
determined.  In  these  particular  experiments  the  average  work  done 
was  about  -10  watts  per  day,  or  109,000  kilogrammeters,  equivalent  to 
256  calories  per  da}-.  Dividing  this  b}'  the  total  number  of  calories 
measured  by  the  calorimeter,  3,726  per  day,  they  obtain  an  average 
mechanical  efficiency  of  7  per  cent  of  the  total  energy  metabolized. 
But  after  deducting  the  average  amount  of  energy  metabolized  by  the 
same  man  when  at  rest,  which  had  been  found  by  several  experiments 
to  be  about  2,500  calories,  the  remainder,  which  was  assumed  to  be  the 
energy  metabolized  for  the  performance  of  the  work,  is  1,226  calories 
per  da3",  and  the  mechanical  efficiency  becomes,  for  these  experiments, 
21  per  cent. 

OCCASION  AND  PLAN  OF    THE  PRESENT  INCIUIEY. 

The  six- day  bicycle  race  held  in  the  Madison  Square  Garden  in  New 
York  in  December,  1898,  offered  an  opportunity  for  observations  on 
the  food  consumption  and  metabolism  of  trained  athletes  under  condi- 
tions of  unusually  prolonged  as  well  as  severe  exertion.  It  was  hoped 
at  the  outset  that  arrangements  would  be  possible  for  determining  the 
amount  of  work  done  and  the  mechanical  efficienc}"  of  their  bodies, 
considered  as  prime  motors,  with  some  approach  to  accuracy.  Consid- 
erable material  was  gathered  for  such  computations  and  was  used  by 
Professor  Carpenter  in  the  preparation  of  the  appended  report  on  the 
mechanical  work  and  efficiency  of  the  riders.  Circumstances  have  not 
permitted  the  direct  experimenting  with  a  bicycle  dynamometer,  which 
was  originally  planned. 

It  was  reasonably  certain  that  the  contestants,  stimulated  by  the  pro- 
fessional importance  of  the  race,  the  value  of  the  prizes  offered,  and  the 
size  and  enthusiasm  of  their  audiences,  would  perform  an  amount  of 
work  far  greater  than  could  be  expected  of  a  man  working  alone  for 
purely  experimental  purposes,  and  probably  greater  than  was  accom- 
plished by  the  professional  pedestrian  observed  by  Flint,  Pavy,  and 
Blyth.  It  was  also  believed  that  the  measurements  of  income  and  outgo 
of  matter  could  be  made  with  considerable  more  accuracy  and  complete- 
ness than  was  attained  in  the  experiments  which  these  investigators 
reported.     On  the  other  hand,  it  was  evident  that  the  observations 


^  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. ,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  63. 


19 

would  have  to  be  made  under  considerable  disadvantages  and  that  many 
of  the  conditions  would  be  beyond  control,  since  no  attempt  was  to  be 
made  to  regulate  the  diet  or  movements  of  the  contestants  under 
observation,  and  they  were  not  to  be  subjected  to  any  inconvenience 
or  delaj^s  on  account  of  the  experiments.  It  could  not  be  expected, 
therefore,  that  the  results  would  be  capable  of  as  strict  interpretation 
as  in  the  case  of  ordinary  metabolism  experiments,  nor  was  it  feasible 
to  observe  the  metabolism  of  the  men  before  and  after  the  race,  as 
Flint  was  able  to  do  in  the  case  of  Weston  in  1870. 

The  general  plan  adopted  involved  the  determination  of  (1)  the 
amount  and  composition  of  the  foods  and  beverages  used  and  (2)  the 
amount  and  composition  of  the  urine  and  feces  excreted.  Records  of 
the  time  occupied  in  rest  and  in  riding,  the  approximate  number  of 
hours  of  sleep,  and  the  general  changes  in  body  weight  were  also 
obtained. 

Thirty-one  contestants  entered,  and  twelve  finished,  the  race.  The 
observations  were  made  upon  three,  one  of  whom  withdrew  early  in 
the  fourth  day,  while  the  others  continued  until  the  close  of  the  race, 
winning  the  first  and  fourth  places,  respectively.  The  race  began  a 
little  after  midnight  on  Sunday  night  and  ended  a  little  after  10  p.  m. 
on  the  following  Saturday  night,  thus  continuing  one  hundred  and 
fortj^-two  hours.  The  observations  were  continued  during  the  whole 
time,  daj^  and  night.  A  number  of  chemists  connected  with  the  nutri- 
tion investigations  in  progress  at  Middletown  shared  with  the  writers 
in  the  observations  made  on  the  race  track,  there  being  usually  three 
observers  present  at  a  time.  The  labor  of  making  the  observations 
was  exacting  and  practically  continuous,  as  the  contestants  spent  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  time — often  twenty-two  to  twenty-three  hours  of  each 
da}^ — on  the  track. 

The  samples  were  prepared  for  analysis  in  a  neighboring  laboratory. 
The  analyses  were  made  at  Middletown,  Conn. ,  in  the  chemical  labora- 
tory of  Weslej^an  University. 

THE  SUBJECTS  OF  THE  EXPERIMENTS. 

All  of  the  subjects  had  been  trained  for  the  race,  and  two  of  them 
were  experienced  in  contests  of  this  sort.  Although  natives  of  other 
countries,  all  had  lived  for  a  number  of  years  in  the  United  States  and 
were  in  the  hands  of  American  trainers,  so  that  there  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  in  dietary  and  most  other  habits  they  fairly  represent 
American  professional  athletes.  There  are  many  reasons  for  believing 
that  in  this  race  Miller  was  the  best  representative  of  the  well-trained, 
well-managed  athlete.  In  the  descriptions  which  follow  the  data 
regarding  Miller  and  Pilkington  were  furnished  for  the  most  part  by 
Mr.  West,  their  trainer,  while  the  description  of  Albert  is  based 
mainly  on  data  supplied  by  himself. 


20 

C.  W.  Miller. — Age,  24;  height  (without  shoes),  5  feet  5  inches; 
weight  in  ordinary  clothing  when  not  in  special  training,  about  172 
pounds;  in  riding  costume  at  the  beginning  of  the  race,  15T  pounds  12 
ounces;  at  the  same  time  stripped,  153  pounds  l-l  ounces;  waist  meas- 
ure, 34  inches;  chest  measure,  38  inches;  expansion,  37-42  inches. 
Although  a  native  of  Germany,  he  had  lived  for  six  years  in  Chicago, 
where,  previous  to  taking  up  athletics,  he  was  engaged  in  business. 
For  four  years  he  had  devoted  himself  mainly,  and  for  over  two  years 
entirely,  to  bicycle  racing. 

Mr.  Miller  always  obeyed  his  trainer  and  manager  without  ques- 
tion and  never  allowed  himself  any  anxiet}^  regarding  business  affairs 
or  arrangements  of  any  kind.  This  circumstance  is  believed  to  have 
been  of  some  advantage  to  him  in  his  work.  According  to  the  state- 
ments of  his  trainer,  he  never  uses  alcohol  or  tobacco  in  any  form, 
and  his  system  of  training  involved  no  special  deprivations,  and  there- 
fore did  not  wear  upon  him,  his  usual  habits  being  such  as  to  necessi- 
tate no  essential  change  in  preparing  for  a  race.  Three  or  four  weeks 
before  the  present  contest  he  went  with  his  trainer  to  Cape  Girardeau, 
Mo. ,  to  secure  the  advantage  of  warmer  weather  for  his  training.  Here 
for  two  or  three  weeks  he  trained  by  riding  40  or  50  miles  per  day  on 
an  outdoor  track.  Six  days  before  the  race  he  started  for  New  York, 
and  from  then  until  the  race  took  ver}^  little  exercise.  During  both 
these  periods  he  lived  in  hotels  and  took  his  meals  with  his  trainer,  who 
limited  his  diet  only  by  restricting  the  quantities  of  pastry  and  pork 
consumed.  Reaching  New  York  on  Friday  afternoon  before  the  race, 
he  remained  quietly  in  his  hotel  nearly  all  of  the  intervening  time, 
going  out  only  once  to  the  garden  to  try  the  track  for  a  few  minutes. 

Frank  Alhert. — Age  28;  height  (without  shoes)  5  feet  8i  inches; 
weight  in  ordinary  clothing  when  not  in  special  training,  about  150 
pounds;  in  riding  costume  at  the  beginning  of  the  race,  138  pounds  8 
ounces;  waist  measure,  30  inches;  chest  measure,  35  inches;  expansion, 
33-37  inches.  Born  in  Canada  of  Scotch-Irish  parents,  he  had  lived  in 
New  York  City  since  boyhood.  He  early  took  up  athletics  and  at  the 
time  of  these  experiments  had  been  devoting  himself  to  foot  and  cj^cle 
racing  for  at  least  ten  years  and  had  once  held  a  world's  record  in  the 
latter. 

He  was  his  own  manager,  and  thus  had  manj'^  more  arrangements  to 
look  after  than  did  Miller.  He  also  attended  entirel}^  to  his  own  train- 
ing, employing  a  trainer  only  at  the  beginning  of  the  race.  He  states 
that  while  temperate  in  all  his  habits,  he  habitually  smokes  in  modera- 
tion and  is  not  a  total  abstainer.  During  the  two  or  three  weeks  pre- 
vious to  the  race  he  lived  in  a  private  family  in  New  York  City,  not 
limiting  his  diet  except  to  avoid  veal  and  fat  meats.  His  exercise 
consisted  in  walking  several  miles  every  day  and  riding  for  a  couple  of 
hours,  more  or  less,  on  a  "home  trainer,"  or  on  a  rather  small  indoor 


21 


track  in  the  c•it3^  He  took  pains  to  secure  at  least  eiLfht  hours  of  sleep 
every  night.  During-  training  he  continued  to  smoke  occasionally. 
He  took  little  exercise  on  the  Friday  before  the  race  began  and  practi- 
cally none  on  Saturday  and  Sunday.  From  noon  of  the  Thursday  to 
noon  of  the  Saturday  before  the  race  it  was  possible  to  observe  his  diet 
and  collect  the  urine.  This  covers  practically  the  last  day  of  active 
training  and  the  first  day  of  comparative  rest  before  the  race. 

Henry  Pilkington. — Age  25;  height  5  feet  1\  inches;  weight  in  ordi- 
nary clothing  when  not  in  special  training,  about  150  pounds;  in  riding- 
costume  at  the  beginning  of  the  race,  111  pounds  1  ounces;  waist  meas- 
ure, 31  inches;  chest  measure,  36  inches;  expansion,  31—39  inches.  Born 
in  Ireland,  he  had  lived  four  years  in  this  countr3^  For  five  years  he 
had  given  much  time  to  athletics,  but  this  was  his  first  attempt  to  ride 
an  endurance  race.  He  had  trained  with  Miller  and  in  a  similar  man- 
ner.    In  disposition  he  resembled  Albert  rather  than  Miller. 

SURROUNDINGS  AND  EXPERIMENTAL  CONDITIONS. 

The  Madison  Square  Garden,  in  which  the  race  here  described  was 
held,  is  practicall)^  a  covered  inclosure  occupying  nearly  the  whole  of 


Fig.  1. — Diagram  of  track  used  for  six-day  race,  Madison  Square  Garden,  New  York  City, 

December,  1898. 

a  city  block.  It  has  seats  around  the  sides  for  spectators  and  a  great 
court  in  the  center.  Around  this  court  a  pine  plank  track  was  con- 
structed for  the  special  purpose  of  the  six-da}^  bicycle  race  (fig.  1). 
This  track  was  straight  at  the  sides  and  semicircular  at  the  ends.  The 
horizontal  width  was  18  feet,  but  at  all  points  the  outer  edge  was  raised. 
This  elevation  of  the  outer  edge  was  3  feet  at  the  lowest  point  (midway 
of  the  straight  side)  and  9i  feet  at  the  highest  (midwa}^  of  the  semi- 
circular end).     The  "banking"  here  adopted  was  said  to  be  somewhat 


22 

greater  than  had  ])een  uyed  in  previous  ,six-day  contests,  but  decidedly 
less  than  is  usually  found  on  tracks  constructed  for  racing-  at  high 
speed. 

A  heavy  black  line,  the  ''pole,"  was  drawn  around  the  track  18 
inches  from  the  inside  edge,  as  close  as  it  would  be  practicable  to  ride 
at  a  moderate  rate  of  speed,  and  served  as  a  sort  of  guide  for  the  riders. 
The  length  of  this  line  was  intended  to  be  exactly  one-tenth  of  a  mile 
and  was  so  considered  in  making  up  the  official  record  (fig.  1).  The 
contestants,  however,  did  not  follow  the  pole  exactly  and  were  apt  to 
ride  outside  of  it,  especially  when  attempting  to  pass  one  another.  In 
consequence  the  distance  actually  covered  was  somewhat  greater  than 
the  records  show. 

Inside  the  track,  along  one  of  its  straight  sides,  was  a  level  space 
about  6  feet  wide.  A  portion  of  this  space  was  assigned  to  each  rider. 
Here  his  food  and  drink  were  brought  and  handed  to  him,  as  described 
beyond  (p.  32).  The  chemists  who  made  the  observations  here  reported 
occupied  places  in  this  space  and  had  their  balances  and  other  appara- 
tus for  weighing  and  sampling  the  food  on  tables  here.  While  engaged 
in  the  observations  they  did  not  leave  this  space  except  to  accompany 
the  riders  to  their  quarters.  To  enable  the  latter  to  pass  quickly 
between  the  track  and  their  quarters,  gatewaj^s  were  provided  in  the 
wall  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  track  at  convenient  points. 

Miller  and  Pilkington  were  quartered  in  a  small  room  under  one 
turn  of  the  track  and  near  one  of  the  gateways  just  described.  The 
room  was  practically  without  ventilation,  was  lighted  only  by  gas,  and 
was  used  to  some  extent  as  a  kitchen  and  as  a  lounging  room.  The 
atmosphere  was  therefore  rather  bad,  but  the  temperature  of  the  room 
was  kept  at  about  normal.  Most  of  the  other  riders,  including  Albert, 
were  quartered  in  box  stalls  in  the  basement  of  the  building,  which 
had  been  in  use  during  a  horse  show  but  a  short  time  before.  These 
stalls  were  dark  and  rather  damp  and  cold.  That  occupied  by  Albert 
was  farther  from  the  track  and  on  a  lower  floor  than  the  room  assigned 
to  Miller,  and  each  trip  to  it  necessarily  involved  a  greater  loss  of 
time.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  quarters  were  but 
little  used. 

In  none  of  the  quarters  was  there  running  water,  and  usually  only 
the  hands,  face,  and  feet  of  the  riders  were  bathed.  This  is  notable  in 
contrast  to  the  frequent  bathing  usually  practiced  by  amateur  athletes 
or  those  whose  exertions  are  of  short  duration.  Miller's  legs  were 
massaged  at  frequent  intervals,  and  not  infrequently,  especially  in  the 
last  half  of  the  race,  his  head,  neck,  and  legs  were  bathi^d  with  hot 
water,  this  being  believed  to  induce  wakefulness. 

As  a  residt  of  frequent  though  not  altogether  systematic  observa- 
tions, the  average  temperature  on  the  track  was  estimated  as  58°  to 
&P  F.     The  variations  in  temperature  were  sufficient  at  times  to  be 


23 

very  noticeable.  Sometimes  it  was  cold  enough  to  cause  the  riders  to 
complain.  It  was  noticeable  that  even  during-  the  hardest  riding  none 
of  the  racers  under  observation  perspired  as  freely  as  would  be  ex- 
pected of  a  man  at  such  severe  work.  When  thej  came  off  the  track 
their  clothing  was  usually  damp,  but  never  actually  wet.  So  far  as 
observed,  none  of  the  men  complained  of  becoming-  warm  when  riding. 
The  clothing  was  of  such  nature  that  it  absorbed  and  retained  con- 
siderable perspiration,  the  amount  being  great  enough  to  prevent  the 
weight  of  the  subjects  being  ascertained  with  accuracy  when,  as  was 
usually  necessary,  they  were  weighed  dressed.  The  riders  wore,  as  a 
rule,  two  jerseys  and  two  or  three  pairs  of  tights  or  trunks. 

The  glare  of  the  lights  in  the  evenings  on  the  light-colored  wooden 
track  and  the  dust  which  had  gathered  before  the  end  of  the  week 
affected  the  eyes  of  the  riders  slightl}^  especiall}^  on  the  last  days. 

Another  disagreeable  feature,  and  one  of  which  the  riders  made  the 
most  complaint,  was  the  presence  of  tobacco  smoke,  which  kept  the 
atmosphere  always  tainted  and  often  made  it  very  bad. 

How  great  was  the  loss  of  sleep  and  how  irregular  were  the  habits 
of  even  the  best  managed  and  most  successful  of  the  contestants 
during-  the  race  will  l)e  seen  from  the  following  record  of  the  two  men 
studied.  Owing  to  unavoidable  circumstances  it  was  not  possible  to 
obtain  the  details  of  Pilkington's  record.  He  was  not  a  prominent 
contestant  and  dropped  out  early  in  the  fourth  da}^  of.  the  race. 

DAILY  RECOED  OF  THE  RACE. 

Before  the  beginning-  of  the  race  each  contestant  was  subjected  to 
a  medical  examination,  special  attention  being  given  to  the  heart. 
Physicians  were  on  hand  throughout  the  race  for  the  purpose  of 
watching  the  riders,  examining  all  who  seemed  greatly  exhausted  and 
stopping  any  whom  they  saw  lit.  Some  of  these  ph5^sicians  were 
employed  by  the  racing  association,  while  others  were  officers  of  the 
New  York  City  board  of  health  and  had  been  detailed  for  this  duty. 

Monday^  Decemher  5. — ^The  contestants,  thirtj-one  in  number,  were 
started  at  8  minutes  20  seconds  after  12  on  the  morning  of  December  5. 

At  12.44  Miller  lost  one  minute  by  changing  wheels.  At  3.35  a.  m. 
Albert  left  the  track,  feeling  unwell,  but  returned  after  a  rest  of  15 
minutes.     After  riding  7  miles  he  again  rested  5  minutes. 

From  the  start  the  effort  of  all  the  leading  contestants,  especialh'- 
Miller  and  two  others  who  were  not  included  in  the  investigation,  was 
to  maintain  a  high  speed,  in  the  hope  of  wearing  out  their  rivals  as 
early  as  possible  and  then  to  hold  the  advantage  thus  won.^     Most  of 

^  Even  in  the  earliest  part  of  the  race  the  spirits  of  the  riders  seemed  largely  influ- 
enced by  their  relative  positions  among  the  contestants.  It  is  partly  for  this  reason 
that  the  daily  progress  of  Miller  and  Albert  is  here  given  in  considerable  detail. 
Inasmuch  as  Pilkington  did  not  complete  the  race,  details  of  his  record  are  omitted. 


24 

the  time  during-  the  iirst  half  da}^  Miller  set  the  pace,  and  at  the  end 
of  1'2  hours  he  was  in  the  lead  with  a  score  of  236  miles.  At  12.28 
p.  m.  he  dismounted  and  went  to  his  quarters;  changed  some  of  his 
clothing;  remained  off  his  wheel  for  12  minutes.  At  about  the  same 
time  Albert  was  off'  the  track  for  11  minutes.  At  5.10  p.  m.  he  again 
left  the  track  for  10  minutes.  At  5.16  Miller  left  the  track  for  11 
minutes'  rest  and  rubbing.  He  appeared  none  the  worse  for  his  riding 
and  was  in  excellent  spirits.  He  was  also  off'  his  bicycle  for  1  to  2 
minutes  at  6.15,  9.30,  9.45,  and  10.10  p.  m.  The  last  dismount  was 
due  to  a  fall.  Albert  was  off  for  16  minutes  at  about  10  p.  m.  An 
hour  later  he  was  again  off'  for  21  minutes,  and  at  1.26  a.  m.  on  Tues- 
day he  left  the  track  to  sleep  and  was  off  nearly  an  hour,  sleeping 
most  of  the  time.     Miller  had  a  20-minute  rest  about  midnight. 

At  the  end  of  the  day  Miller  had  ridden  23  hours  and  10  minutes 
and  covered  441.8  miles;  Albert,  22  hours  and  40  minutes,  covering 
402  miles. 

Tuesday,  Deceiriber  6. — At  2,20  a.  m.  Miller  left  the  track  and  was 
off'  70  minutes,  sleeping  about  an  hour.  When  he  returned  he  rode 
for  7  hours  without  dismounting,  keeping,  as  on  the  ffrst  day,  usually 
at  the  head  of  the  fastest  group  of  riders.  At  10.30  Miller  went  to 
his  room  for  45  minutes,  most  of  which  was  spent  in  sleep.  On 
returning  he  rode  hard,  with  onl}'  three  stops  of  10  to  20  minutes  each, 
until  after  midnight.  During  this  time  both  of  his  opponents  had 
been  forced  to  rest,  so  that  when  he  stopped,  shortly,  after  midnight,  he 
was  only  4  miles  behind  the  leader  and  was  30  miles  ahead  of  the  third. 
Miller's  trainer  insisted  on  his  sleeping  a  second  time  before  noon  of 
this  day.     Later  in  the  day  he  secured  the  lead. 

Throughout  the  da}^  Albert  kept  up  a  steady,  strong  pace,  and  bj^ 
taking  little  rest  succeeded  in  covering  more  distance  (371  miles)  than 
any  other  rider.  From  2  a.  m.  until  after  noon  he  did  not  dismount. 
During  the  afternoon  he  made  five  stops,  aggregating  about  an  hour. 
When  he  stopped  to  sleep,  at  about  11  p.  m.,  he  held  third  place.  He 
was  off'  from  11.05  p.  m.  to  12.33  a.  m.  and  had  a  little  over  an  hour's 
sleep. 

The  day's  score  was:  Miller,  21  hours  10  minutes,  366.7  miles; 
Albert,  21  hours  17  minutes,  371.3  miles. 

Wednesday,  Decemher  7. — Miller  and  ADjert  both  went  on  in  good 
spirits  and  excellent  condition.  At  2  a  m.  the  former  was  second  and 
the  latter  fifth.  At  4  a.  m.  Miller  rested  half  an  hour,  and  then  return- 
ing, rode  rapidly  and  steadily,  gaining  the  lead  early  in  the  morning 
and  holding  it  most  of  the  day.  He  made  occasional  stops,  the  longest 
Vjeing  at  6  y).  m.,  when  he  was  off'  for  an  hour  and  slept  most  of  the  time. 
During  the  day  he  rode  20  hours  11  minutes,  covering  334.1  miles. 

Albert  rode  all  day  at  a  steady  pace.  Every  hour  or  two  he  would 
dismount  for  5  to  20  minutes  for  a  little  rest  and  massage,  and  he 
usually  ate  at  these  times  instead  of  on  his  wheel.     The  dust,  smoke, 


25 

and  glare  had  slightly  irritated  his  eyes.  He  was  unwilling  to  stop 
for  sleep.  At  midnight  (after  72  hours)  he  held  fourth  place.  He  had 
ridden  during  the  day  20  hours  41  minutes,  covering  352.7  miles. 

Thursday,  Decemher  8.—A.i  "l.Ti  a.  m.  Miller  left  the  track  for  40 
minutes,  sleeping  most  of  the  time.  Three  hours  later  he  was  again 
off  for  48  minutes.  Albert,  who  had  heen  without  sleep  for  30  hours, 
but  with  a  short  rest  every  hour  or  two,  left  the  track  at  5.45  for  2i 
hours,  getting  2  hours  of  sleep.  Returning,  he  rode  on  the  same  plan 
as  the  day  before,  keeping  a  good  pace,  usually  in  the  wake  of  one  of 
the  leading  racers,  sprinting  little,  and  stopping  every  hour  or  two  for 
5  to  15  minutes.  He  maintained  fourth  place  all  day,  gradually 
increasing  his  lead  over  the  fifth. 

Miller,  from  the  time  of  his  return  at  6.35  a.  m.  until  5.50  p.  m., 
lost  about  1  hour  in  five  stops,  and  during  the  time  he  was  on  his 
wheel  kept  up  a  pace  of  about  18  miles  an  hour.  By  noon  he  had 
regained  first  place,  but  lost  it  again  during  one  of  his  ^short  rests. 
When  he  went  to  his  room  at  5.50  he  was  partiall}^  bathed  and  well 
rubbed,  and  then  rested  about  1  hour.  During  the  evening  he  tied  for 
first  place  with  his  principal  competitor,  and  they  sprinted  frequently. 

During  the  day  Miller  rode  19  hours  43  minutes,  covering  316.5 
miles;  Albert,  17  hours  13  minutes,  covering  285.3  miles, 

Friday,  December  9. — Soon  after  midnight  Miller's  chief  competitor 
left  the  track  for  some  time.  Miller  gained  the  lead  and  then  rested 
for  about  50  minutes.  Four  times  before  noon  he  stopped  for  15 
to  30  minutes  for  short  rests  and  massage,  but  when  riding  he  kept 
up  a  pace  of  17  or  18  miles  per  hour.  Between  12  and  1  the  official 
score  shows  that  he  covered  20. 5  miles.  He  took  a  40-minute  rest  at 
2. 30  and  again  at  8  p.m.,  with  half  a  dozen  short  stops  at  various  times 
during  the  da3^  By  midnight  he  had  a  lead  of  37  miles.  He  had 
ridden  1,786.9  miles  in  120  hours,  of  which  he  had  spent  103.9  hours 
on  his  wheel,  making  the  average  rate,  when  riding,  17.2  miles  per 
hour.  Out  of  the  total  of  about  16  hours  spent  off'  his  wheel  it  was 
estimated  that  he  had  slept  about  5  hours.  The  outside  estimate  of 
sleep  up  to  this  time  would  be  6  or  6i  hours. 

A  little  after  midnight  Albert  left  the  track  for  2^  hours.  When  he 
returned  he  rode  much  as  on  the  previous  da}' ,  stopping  sixteen  times 
before  9.45  p.  m.,  when  he  again  rested  for  nearly  2  hours.  His  rid- 
ing was  steady  and  his  spirits  and  appetite  good. 

The  score  for  the  day  was:  Miller,  327.8  miles  in  19  hours  37  min- 
utes; Albert,  229.4  miles  in  14  hours  30  minutes. 

Saturday^  December  10. — Miller  stopped  at  1.24  a.  m.  and  took  \\ 
hours'  sleep.  Before  2  p.  m.  he  made  six  shorter  stops.  Then  he 
rested  an  hour,  after  which  he  rode  20  minutes,  then  was  off  the  track 
\\  hours.  During  the  remaining  6  hours  of  the  race  he  rode  only 
86.7  miles,  but  it  was  evident  that  he  could  easily  have  ridden  much 
more  had  he  wished.     On  several  occasions  he  rode  a  mile  in  less 


26 

than  8  iiiinutes,  .soinetinies  koepinj>'  pace  with  the  .short-distance  exhi- 
bition rider.s  for  several  laps.  His  record  for  the  day  was  220.5  miles 
in  1-i  hours  1-4  minutes,  and  for  the  six  da3^s  was  2,007.4  miles  in  118 
hours  5  minutes. 

Until  3  p.  m.  Albert  rode  on  nuich  the  same  plan  as  on  the  other 
days,  except  that  his  speed  was  lower  and  his  rests  longer.  As  a  rule, 
he  would  ride  8  to  12  miles  in  iO  to  50  minutes  and  rest  the  remainder 
of  the  hour.  After  3  p.  m.  he  rode  only  21  miles  in  all.  His  record 
for  the  day  was  181.9  miles  in  12  hours  23  minutes,  and  for  the  six 
days  was  1,822.6  miles  in  108  hours  41  minutes.  At  the  end  of  the 
race  he  walked  without  difficulty  to  his  lodg-ings,  a  distance  of  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile. 

While  the  race  ended  officially  at  10.08,  the  contestants  had  practi- 
cally stopped  racing  some  time  before.  At  no  time  after  noon  did 
any  one  of  the  leading  riders  appear  to  be  trying  to  pass  the  one  next 
ahead  of  him,  and  late  in  the  afternoon  practically  all  of  them  were 
off  the  track  for  some  time. 

Sunday,  December  11. — Both  Miller  and  Albert  were  seen  near  the 
middle  of  the  day.  There  was  nothing  in  the  appearance  of  either  to 
indicate  that  he  had  been  through  an  unusual  experience. 

Miller  gave  public  exhibitions  upon  his  bic^^cle  during  the  succeed- 
ing weeks.     Both  Miller  and  Albert  took  part  in  a  twenty-four-hour 
race  in  New  York  the  following  month  and  in  a  six-day  race  in  San^ 
Francisco  two  months  later.  Miller  winning  the  latter  and  breaking 
his  New  York  record. 

The  physical  strength  and  endurance  manifested  by  these  men  is 
brought  out  more  clearh^  in  the  following  tabular  recapitulation: 

Table  4. — Recapitulation  of  score  of  Miller  and  Albert. 


Subject. 


Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday , 

Friday 

Saturday,  till  10  p.  iii . 


Total  for  six  days 

Average  for  six  days 

Total  for  first  live  days 

Average  for  first  Ave  days 


Monday 

Tuesday  

Wednesday 

Thursday , 

Friday 

Saturday,  till  10  p.  m  . 


Total  for  six  days 

Average  for  sixdays 

Total  for  first  (i  vc  days 

Average  for  first  five  days 


Riding. 


Hrs.  Min. 

23  10 

21  10 

20  11 

19  43 

19  37 

H  14 


Rest. 


Ilrn.  Min. 

0  50 

2  50 

3  49 

4  17 
4  23 
7  46 


22  40 

21  17 

90  41 

17  13 

14  30 

12  23 


108  44 

IH  7 

91  21 

19  1(1 


Hrs.  Min. 

0  0 

1  40 
1  35 
1  10 

1  5 

2  30 


lis  5  ;   23  55 

19  41  I   3  59 
103  51  16  9 

20  46  3  14 


1  20 

2  43 

3  19 
0  47 
9  30 
9  37 


33  16 

5  33 

23  39 

4  44 


Sleen  a    I^istance 
ftieep.  a    covered. . 


8  0 

1  20 

5  30 

1  6 


0  0 

1  30 
0  20 

2  0 

3  40 
2  0 


9  30 

1  35 

7  30 

1  30 


Miles. 
441.8 
366.7 
334.1 
316.5 
327.8 
220.5 


2,007.4 
334.6 

1,786.9 
357. 4 


402.0 
371.3 
352. 7 
285.3 
229.4 
181.9 


1,822.6 
303.  S 

1,640.7 
328.1 


<t  Apjiroximate  e.stimate. 


27 

As  already  stated,  Pilking-toii  did  not  complete  the  race,  and  the 
data  of  his  work  were  not  obtained  in- full  detail.  He  withdrew  early 
on  the  fourth  day.     His  score  for  the  first  three  days  was  863.2  miles. 

Changes  in  hody  ^weights  during  the  race. — As  already  stated,  the 
weighings  of  the  riders  were  not  accurate  because  the}'^  were  necessa- 
rily made  without  removal  of  the  clothing  which  contained  varying 
and  sometimes  considerable  amounts  of  moisture.  The  following 
general  statements  are,  however,  believed  to  be  reasonabl}^  near  the 
truth : 

Miller  lost  about  4  pounds  in  weight  on  the  first  da}^  of  the  race. 
During  the  remaining  five  days  the  gains  and  losses  were  not  great 
and  so  nearly  equaled  each  other  that  the  weight  at  the  close  of  the 
race  was  practically  the  same  as  at  the  end  of  the  first  day.  In  other 
words,  the  net  change  in  weight  for  the  six  days  is  accounted  for  by 
the  loss  observed  on  the  first  day,  the  net  change  for  the  following  five 
days  being  practically  nothing. 

Albert  lost  only  about  2  pounds  on  the  first  day.  The  first  and 
second  daj^s  taken  together  show  a  loss  of  about  3^  pounds,  which  was 
regained  during  the  remaining  four  days  of  the  race.  The  weight  at 
the  end  of  the  race  was  almost  exactly  the  same  as  at  the  beginning. 

Pilkington  lost  about  3  pounds  on  the  first  day  of  the  i-ace  and 
showed  no  change  in  weight  on  the  second  and  third  days. 

Thus  each  of  the  riders  lost  weight  at  the  beginning  of  the  race.  In 
two  cases  the  weight  remained  about  constant  after  this,  while  in  one 
case  the  initial  loss  was  recovered  during  the  following  days  of  the 
contest. 

ANALYSES    OF   FOOD    MATERIALS   AND   FECES. 

As  previously  stated,  the  investigation  with  the  bicyclists  included 
(1)  dietary  studies,  (2)  digestion  experiments,  and  (3)  determinations 
of  the  balance  of  income  and  outgo  of  nitrogen.  In  connection  with 
the  dietary  studies  most  of  the  food  materials  used  were  analyzed. 
This  was  the  more  desirable  since  a  few  of  the  articles  used  were 
somewhat  unusual,  and  the  composition  of  many  of  the  cooked  foods 
could  not  l)e  calculated  read^y  from  the  tables  showing  the  average 
composition  of  American  food  materials.  Whenever  practicable  a 
sample  was  taken  from  each  lot  of  food  purchased  or  prepared,  com- 
posite samples  being  made  when  dift'erent  lots  of  the  same  food  were 
used.  In  other  cases,  especiallj"  those  of  the  prepared  foods,  analyses 
were  made  of  duplicate  samples,  which  were  purchased  in  New  York 
at  the  time  of  the  race  except  as  otherwise  stated  in  the  description  of 
samples  beyond.  The  fruits  were  not  analyzed,  as  the  quantities  of 
nutrients  furnished  by  them  were  small  and  the  average  composition 
was  fairly  well  known. 


28 

The  anah'tieal  methods  followed  were  those  adopted  by  the  Associa- 
tion of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists^  with  such  minor  modifications 
as  have  been  found  desirable  in  the  experience  of  this  laborator}^  and 
have  been  described  in  previous  publications.^ 

Such  samples  as  could  not  conveniently  be  transported  in  the  fresh 
state  were  partially  dried  in  New  York.  All  analyses  were  made  in 
the  chemical  laboratory  of  Wesleyan  University,  at  Middletown,  Conn. 

In  connection  with  the  three  studies  made  during  the  race  the  feces 
were  collected  and  analyzed.  These  samples  follow  those  of  the  food 
materials  in  the  description  and  tabulation  which  follow. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  SAMPLES  OF  FOOD  AND  FECES  ANALYZED. 

No.  2979.  Roast  leg  of  lamb. — Rather  well-done  leg  of  lamb  from  which  most  of  the 
visible  fat  had  been  removed.     Used  in  dietary  study  No.  256. 

No.  2983.  Beefsteak. — This  was  rather  rare  round  steak  containing  some  visible  fat. 
Used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  2982.  Chicken  broth. — Prepared  in  the  usual  way  by  the  trainer  immediately 
before  using.     Used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  2995.  Mutton  broth. — This  was  rather  thin  broth  prepared  immediately  before 
using  by  stewing  the  mutton  in  water.     Used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  2996.  Beef  tea. — Prepared  by  the  trainer  from  round  steak.  Used  m  dietary 
study  No.  257. 

No.  3014.  Vigoral. — A  commercial  preparation  apparently  consisting  of  a  concen- 
trated beef  extract  mixed  with  some  pulverized  beef  and  strongly  flavored  with 
celery  salt.  Used  in  dietary  study  No.  257.  It  was  assumed  that  the  vigoral  used 
in  dietary  studies  Nos.  255  and  258  had  the  same  comjiosition. 

No.  3019.  Beef -tea  tablets. — A  commercial  preparation  of  beef  extract  and  vegetables 
in  solid  form.  This  sample  was  purchased  in  Middletown  and  assumed  to  have  the 
same  composition  as  that  used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  3020.  Beef  juice. — Very  rare  round  steak  was  cut  into  small  pieces  and  pressed 
by  hand.  The  sample  for  analysis  was  prepared  in  Middletown  in  the  same  manner 
as  that  used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  2976.  Soup. — A  thin  soup  prepared  with  mixed  vegetables.  Used  in  dietary 
study  No.  256. 

No.  2997.  Milk. — This  was  milk  purchased  from  a  cart  and  not  bottled.  Used  in 
dietary  study  No.  256. 

No.  2998.  Milk. — Bottled  milk  ])urchased  from  a  New  York  City  dairy.  Used  in 
dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  2999.  Milk. — Bottled  milk  from  a  New  York  City  dairy.  Used  in  dietary 
studies  Nos.  255  and  258. 

No.  3001.  Koumiss. — A  commercial  preparation  made  from  cow's  milk.  A  dupli- 
cate sample  was  purchased  for  analysis.  It  contained  0.52  per  cent  alcohol  assumed 
as  isodynamic  with  0.9  per  cent  carbohy<lrates.''  Used  in  dietary  studies  Nos.  255 
and  258. 

No.  3002.  Matzoon. — A  commercial  prei)aration  made  from  cow's  milk.  It  con- 
tained 0.81  per  cent  alcolKjl  assumed  as  isodynamic  with  1.4  per  cent  carbohydrates.* 
Used  in  dietary  study  No.  2.55. 

'U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Division  of  Chemistry  Bui.  46,  revised. 
''See  especially  Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1891,  ]>.  47. 

^  Based  on  tiieir  relative  lieats  of  combustion  per  gram,  1  gram  of  alcohol  is  isody- 
namic with  1.7  grams  of  carbohydrates  (7.1^-4.2  =  1.7). 


29 

No.  3000.  Butler. — Purchased  in  a  New  York  City  market.  Used  in  dietary  study 
No.  257. 

No.  3013.  Malted  milk. — A  commercial  preparation.     Used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  3016.  Calf's-foot  jelly. — A  commercial  preparation  of  gelatin  sweetened  and 
flavored  with  wine.  It  contained  2.44  per  cent  alcohol  assumed  as  isodynamic  with 
4.1  per  cent  carbohydrates.^    Used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  2984.    White  bread. — Homemade.     Used  in  dietary  studies  Nos.  256  and  257. 

No.  2985.  Graham  bread. — This  was  what  is  commonly  known  as  graham  gems. 
Used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  2986.  Biscuit. — These  were  the  sort  of  wheat  bread  known  as  "raised"  bis- 
cuit, i.  e.,  leavened  with  yeast.  They  were  unusually  dry  from  having  been  kept 
for  some  time  in  a  paper  bag  at  the  track.     Used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  2978.  Oatmeal,  boiled.. — Prepared  in  the  usual  manner.  Used  in  dietary  study 
No.  256. 

No.  2988.  Oatmeal,  boiled. — Prepared  in  the  usual  manner.  Used  in  dietary  study 
No.  257. 

No.  2994.  Oatmeal,  boiled. — Prepared  in  the  usual  manner.  Used  in  dietary  studies 
Nos.  255  and  258. 

No.  2981.  Rice,  boiled. — Preparedin  the  usual  manner.    Usedin  dietarystudy  No.  257. 

No.  2993.  Rice,  boiled. — Prepared  in  the  usual  manner.  Used  in  dietary  studies 
Nos.  255  and  258. 

No.  2989.  Cake. — Sugar  cakes  purchased  from  a  local  bakery.  Used  in  dietary  study 
No.  255. 

No.  2990.  Custard  pie. — Purchased  from  a  local  bakery.  Used  in  dietary  study  No. 
255. 

No.  2991.  Charlotte  russe. — Purchased  from  a  local  bakery.  Used  in  dietary  study 
No.  255! 

No.  2975.  Rice  pudding. — Homemade.     Used  in  dietary  study  No.  256. 

No.  2992.  Rice  pudding. — Used  in  dietary  study  No.  255. 

No.  2980.   Tapioca  pudding. — Homemade.     Used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  2977.  Mashed  potatoes. — Boiled  and  mashed  with  the  addition  of  a  little  butter 
and  milk.     Used  in  dietary  study  No.  256. 

No.  2987.  Slewed  prunes. — From  a  jar  of  stewed  dried  prunes  prepared  in  a  pri- 
vate family  and  brought  to  the  track.  The  sample  represents  total  edible  portion 
including  liquor.     Used  in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  3017.  Oinger  cde. — One  of  the  commercial  brands  commonly  sold  in  New  York 
City.  A  duplicate  sample  was  purchased  for  analysis.  No  alcohol  was  found.  Used 
in  dietary  study  No.  257. 

No.  3018.  Cocoa  urine. — A  commercial  preparation  commonly  sold  under  this  name. 
A  duplicate  sample  was  purchased  for  analysis.  It  contained  17.36  per  cent  alcohol 
assumed  as  isodynamic  with  29.5  per  cent  carbohydrates.^  Used  in  dietary  study 
No.  257. 

N'o.  3010.  Feces  from  Miller. — Representing  food  eaten  during  the  six  days  of  the 
race.  ^ 

No.  3011.  Feces  from  Albert. — Representing  food  eaten  during  the  six  days  of  the 
race. 

No.  3012.  Feces  from  Pilkington. — Assumed  to  represent  food  consumed  during  first 
three  days  of  the  race. 


^  Based  on  their  relative  heats  of  combustion  per  gram,  1  gram  of  alcohol  is  isody- 
namic with  1.7  grams  of  carbohydrates  (7.1h-4.2=1.7). 


30 


Table  5. 


-Percentage  cumpositiun  of  food  materlah  aiulfeces  analyzed 
these  studies. 


runnectioH  vrilh 


Labo- 
ra- 
tory 
num- 


Ref- 

er- 

enee 

num- 


ber, ber. 


2979 
2983 
2982 
299-5 
2996 
3014 
3019 
3020 
2976 
2997 
2998 
2999 
3001 
3002 
3000 
3013 
3016 


2984 
2985 
2986 
2978 
2988 
2994 
2981 
2993 
2989 
2990 
2991 
2975 
2992 
2980 
2977 
2987 


3017 
3018 


3010 
3011 
3012 


Materials. 


Pro- 
tein. 


ANIMAL   KOOD. 


Roast  leg  of  lamb. 

Beefsteak 

Chicken  broth 

Mutton  broth 

Beef  tea 

Vigoral 

Beet-tea  tablets  . . . 

Beef  juice 

Soup 

Milk 

do 

.....do 

Koumiss 

Matzoon 

Butter 

Malted  milk 

Calf's-foot  jelly  ... 


VEGETABLE   FOOD. 


White  bread 35. 79 

Graham  bread 26. 24 

Biscuit 16. 74 

Oatmeal,  boiled 81. 62 

do 88. 92 

do 86. 18 

Rice,  boiled 77.62 

do 88. 45 

Cake !  23. 80 

Custard  pie '  56. 60 

Charlotte  russe 47. 28 

Rice  pudding 73. 98 

do 70.67 

Tapioca  pudding 81. 05 


Per  ct. 
60.86 
57.58 
92.74 
95.10 
94.93 
41.81 
10.76 


90.98 
86.75 
88.40 
87. 65 
88.33 
90.35 
10. 57 
•2.46 
81.38 


Potatoes,  mashed 
Stewed  prunes . . . 


UNCLASSIFIED   FOOD. 


Ginger  ale  . 
Cocoa  wine 


Miller 

Albert 

Pilkington 


74.10 
78.05 


89.30 
72.04 


Fat. 


Per  ct. 

29. 62 

28.69 

3.56 

1.08 

2.51 

a  13. 81 

a  16. 06 

a  6. 13 

1.36 

3.15 

2.86  \ 

3.08 

3.62  i 

3.08 

1.12 

14.69 

5.31 


10.65 
10.49 
8.66 
2.94 
1.58 
1.99 
2.85 
.69 
7.59 
5.67 
4.81 
3.22 
3.15 
5.00 
2.27 
.73 


Per  ct. 
6.79 
12.91 
2.05 
3.26 
1.69 
1.84 
.24 


1.77 
4.66 
3.91 
3.79 
2.58 
3.16 
86.04 
8.70 


.59 

.58 

9.84 

1.10 

.64 

.52 

1.80 

.06 

12. 71 

9.88 

21.89 

2. 52 

2.62 

5.26 

6.42 

.38 


26.95 
42.76 
22. 55 


27.08 
10.19 

38.24 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Ash. 


4.74 
4.68 
4.13 
4.70 
4.52 
2.67 


70.25 
14.83 


51.42 
60.75 
62.16 
13.58 

8.54 
10.37 
17.29 
10.55 
54.73 
26.40 
25.29 
19.62 
22.73 

7.93 
15.81 
20.13 


10.58 
35.88 


18.95 

34.82 

9.54 


Per  ct. 
1.62 
1.27 
1.58 
.52 
.76 
16.01 
26.74 


1.15 
.76 
.70 
.78 
.95 
.74 
2.27 
3.90 
.19 


1.55 

1.94 

2.80 

.86 

.32 

.94 

.44 

.25 

1.17 

1.45 

.73 

.66 

.83 

.76 

1.40 

.71 


.06 
3.23 


27. 02 
12. 23 
29.67 


Heat  of 
combu.s- 
tion  per 
gram. 


Calories. 

2.308 

2.754 

.350 

.361 

.266 

c  1.350 

C.960 

C.350 

.410 

.790 

.686 

.721 

.625 

.571 

8. 005 

4.302 

.900 


2. 797 

3.182 

3.870 

.833 

.501 

.604 

.998 

.478 

3.773 

2.306 

3.231 

1.200 

1.390 

1.114 

1.316 

.975 


c450 
c  1.500 


5.070 
5.204 
6.480 


«The  proteid  nitrogen  was  determined  by  Mallet's  method  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Division  of  Chemistry 
Bui.. 54)  and  multiplied  by  6.25.  In  our  hands  Mallet's  method  gave  slightly  higher  and  .somewhat 
mohe  concordant  resulti  for  proteid  nitrogen  than  did  the  bromin  method.     (See  Bui.  54,  above.) 

6  As  these  preparations  contained  some  carbohydrates  which  could  not  be  satisfactorily  determined 
hf  direct  estimation,  they  are  calculated  by  difference  in  the  usual  way.  The  result  thus  obtained  is 
obviously  inaccurate,  but  is  comparable  to  the  so-called  "carbohydrates"  of  other  analyses.  In  esti- 
mating the  carbohydrates  by  difference  the  total  nitrogeneous  matter  was  computed  by  multiplying 
the  total  nitrogen  by  6.25. 

cHeat  of  combustion  estimated  from  percentage  composition  by  use  of  the  factors  proposed  by 
Atwater  and  Bryant  in  Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1899,  p.  104. 

A  few  of  the  food  materials  consumed  were  not  analyzed.  These 
were  such  as  previous  investigations  had  shown  to  be  of  nearly  uniform 
composition  or  were  used  in  very  small  amounts.  It  was  assumed 
that  their  composition  could  be  calculated  with  sufficient  accuracy 
from  available  data.  The  values  used  for  this  purpose  are  shown  in 
the  following  table,  together  with  the  calculated  heats  of  combustion 
per  gram.^ 

'Tlic  heats  of  coiiilmstion  were  computed  )»y  use  of  thefactoreproi^osed  by  Atwater 
and  Bryant  in  Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1899,  p.  104. 


31 


Table  6. — Assumed  percentage  compositiou  uf  foods  not  analyzed. 


Ref- 
er- 
ence 
num- 
ber. 


Food  materials. 


ANIMAL   FOOD. 

Beef: 

Steak  (all  lean) 

do 

Lamb: 

Chop.s 

Gravy 

Poultry:  Chicken , 

Fish:  Salmon, canned  .. 

Eggs 

Butter 


UNCLASSIFIED  FOOD. 


Soup:  Tomato,  canned. 


VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Cereals: 

Bread ,  Vienna 

Bread,  graham 

Cake,  wedding  (as  average  of 
fruit  cakes) 

Crackers,  graham 

Crackers,  soda 

Doughnuts 

Sugars,  starches,  and  oils: 

Sugar 

Licorice  drops  (as  coffee  sugar) . 
Vegetables: 

Celery,  edible  portion 

Lettuce 

Peas,  stewed  a  

Potatoes,  plain  boiled 

Tomatoes,  raw 

Tomato  pickles,  green 

Fruits: 

Apples 

Apples,  as  purchased 

Bananas 

Grapes,  Malaga 

Oranges,  edible  portion 

Fears 

Peaches 


Refuse. 


Per  ct. 
73.50 
70.00 

47.60 
13.70 
59.90 
63.50 
73.70 
11.00 


34.20 
35.70 

17.30 
5.40 
5.90 

18.30 


94.50 
94.70 
73.80 
75.50 
94.00 
93.80 

84.60 
63.30 
75.30 
77.40 
86.90 
84.40 
88.10 


Pro- 
tein. 


Per  H. 
23. 20 
21.30 

21.70 
4.70 
27.00 
21.80 
13.40 
1.00 


9.40 
8.90 

6.90 
10.00 
9.80 
6.70 


1.10 
1.20 
6.70 
2.50 
1.20 
1.10 

.40 
.30 
1.30 
1.30 
.80 
.60 
.70 


Per  ct. 
2.50 
7.90 

29.90 
81.80 
11.50 
12.10 
10.50 
85.00 


1.20 
1.80 

10.90 
9.40 
9.10 

21.00 


.10 
.30 
3.37 
.10 
.20 
.40 

.50 
.30 
.60 
1.60 
.20 
.50 
.10 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


54.10 
52.10 

64.10 
73.80 
73.10 
53. 10 

100. 00 
95.00 

3.30 
2.90 
14.57 
20.90 
4.00 
4.00 

14. 20 
10.80 
22.00 
19.20 
11.60 
14.10 
10.80 


A.sh. 


Per  ct. 
1.20 
1.10 

1.30 
.30 
1.30 
2.60 
1.00 
3.00 


1.10 
1.50 

1.80 

1.40 

2.10 

.90 


1.00 

.90 

1.50 

1.00 

.60 

.70 

.30 
.20 
.80 
.50 
.50 
.40 
.30 


Calcula- 
ted heat 
of  com- 
bustion 
per  gram. 


Calories. 
1. 550 
1.950 

4.070 
8.040 
2.620 
2.380 
1.770 
7.920 


2.920 
2.870 

3.980 
4. 550 
4.480 
4.570 

3.960 
3.750 

.200 
.210 
1.200 
1.010 
.260 
.260 

.630 
.470 
1.000 
.980 
.520 
.640 
.480 


a  Composition  assumed  from  that  of  sample  analyzed  in  connection  with  dietaries  of  university 
boat  crews. 

DIETAEY  STUDIES— STATISTICS  OF  FOOD  CONSUMED. 


The  statistics  of  the  amounts  and  composition  of  the  foods  used  by  the 
several  men  under  observation  were  gathered,  and  are  reported  as  far  as 
possible,  in  accordance  with  the  methods  for  dietary  studies  which 
have  been  elaborated  and  followed  in  the  series  of  studies  of  food  and 
nutrition  to  which  these  experiments  belong/  In  some  cases  special 
methods  were  necessary  on  account  of  conditions  under  which  the 
observations  were  made. 

No  regular  meals  were  eaten.  The  food  was  taken  at  such  intervals 
and  in  such  amounts  as  suited  the  convenience  of  the  subject  and  the 
judgment  of  his  trainer.  The  food  was  prepared  in  part  outside  the 
building,  in  part  at  the  quarters  of  the  several  subjects,  and  in  part  at 
their   stands,  which   were   in   the   space   beside   the   track,  which   is 


^U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Buls.  21, 29,  etc. 
Storrs  Sta.  Rpts.  1891-1897. 


and  Connecticut 


32 

described  aboA'e.  Especiallj^  during-  the  earlier  days  of  the  race  most 
of  the  food  was  administered  in  a  liquid  or  semiliquid  form.  When- 
ever a  rider  desired  food  he  called  to  his  trainer  in  passing  the 
stand.  The  food  was  then  put  into  a  small  tin  cylinder  of  known 
weight,  and  the  whole  weighed  by  the  chemist  in  attendance.  A  sig- 
nal was  then  given  to  the  rider,  who  diminished  his  speed  so  that  the 
cylinder  could  be  handed  to  him,  and  caught  in  his  hand  as  he  rode  by. 
He  swallowed  the  food  while  riding,  and  returned  the  cylinder  when 
passing  the  stand  again.  The  rider  and  attendants  were  very  careful 
to  avoid  spilling  any  of  the  food  in  handling  it  after  it  had  been 
weighed.  In  a  few  cases,  however,  there  was  a  slight  loss  of  food  in 
handing  the  cylinder  to  the  moving  rider  or  receiving  it  from  him. 
In  such  cases  it  was  necessary  to  deduct  the  amount  which  appeared 
to  be  thus  lost.  Such  accidents  were  very  rare,  and  can  not  be 
regarded  as  introducing  serious  errors.  When  the  cylinder  was 
returned  it  was  weighed,  and  this  weight  subtracted  from  that  of 
cylinder  and  contents  to  determine  the  amount  actually  eaten. 

The  residue  in  the  can  was  usually  quite  small,  and  in  cases  in  which 
mixtures  were  fed  the  composition  of  this  small  residue  was  assumed 
to  be  the  same  as  of  the  original  mixture.  When  fruit  was  given  the 
edible  portion  was  weighed  and  handed  directly  to  the  rider,  who 
always  consumed  it  completely. 

The  results  of  the  several  dietary  studies  are  tabulated  beyond. 
Following  each  entry  of  the  amount  of  a  food  material  is  a  number 
in  parentheses  which  corresponds  with  the  number  given  the  same  food 
material  in  Tables  5  and  6,  thus  indicating  the  figures  used  in  com- 
puting the  nutrients  in  the  food.  For  example,  the  figure  42  in  paren- 
theses after  the  first  food  material  in  Table  7,  eggs  43  grams,  refers  to 
reference  No.  42  in  Table  6  and  shows  the  assumed  composition  of  the 
eggs.     The  fuel  values  were  calculated  as  explained  beyond,  p.  52. 

The  numbers  of  the  dietary  studies  255-258  are  those  used  in  the 
series  of  such  studies  made  in  connection  with  the  general  nutrition 
investigations  to  which  these  studies  belong. 

DIETARY  STUDY  NO.  255,  C.  W.  MILLER. 

This  study  covered  the  entire  period  of  the  bicycle  race — December 
5  to  10,  inclusive.  Each  portion  of  food,  excepting  the  meat  extract, 
the  supply  of  which  was  weighed  daily,  was  weighed  immediately 
before  })eing  eaten.  Most  of  the  weighings  of  food  were  made  on  a 
torsion  ])alance,  with  metric  beam  graduated  to  5  grams  and  sensitive 
to  1  gram.  This  balance  was  mounted  on  a  small  table  at  the  side  of 
the  track.  As  alread}^  noted,  the  foods  taken  during  the  greater  part 
of  th(;  time  were  mostly  liquid  or  semiliquid,  and  were  eaten  as  a  rule 
without  dismounting.  Toward  the  end  of  the  race,  when  Miller  dis- 
mounted more  frequently  and  spont  more  time  in  his  quarters,  he  ate 


33 

a  considerable  part  of  his  food  there.  This  food  was  weighed  on  a 
spring  balance,  sensitive  to  one-half  ounce,  but  as  the  quantities  taken  at 
a  time  on  these  occasions  were  relatively  large,  and  the  weighing  could 
be  done  at  leisure,  the  proportional  error  was  probably  not  much 
greater  than  at  the  track  side. 

The  amount  and  composition  of  the  food  consumed  each  day,  and 
during  the  whole  period,  as  well  as  the  averages  per  day,  are  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

Table  7. — Foods  and  nutrients  consumed  by  C.  W.  Miller,  December  5-10,  inclusive. 


Kinds  and  amounts  of  food  consumed. 

Nutrients  and  fuel  value. 

Date. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fuel 
value. 

1898. 
Dec.  5 

ANIMAL   FOOD. 

Eggs,  raw,  43  gms.  (4'2);  milk, 690 gms.  (12) ;  koumiss, 
7,138  gms.  (13) .    Total  animal  food 

Grams. 
285.4 

4.4 

Ch-ams. 
214.9 

2.6 

Grams. 
355. 0 

.178.2 

Calories. 
4,624 

773 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Boiled  rice,  360  gms.  (25);  sugar,  72  gms.  (51);  raw 
apples,  edible  portion,  480  gms.  (59) .    Total  vege- 
table food 

Total  food 

289.8 

217.5 

533.2 

5,397 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Vigoral,  127  gms.  (6);  eggs.   173  gms.  (42);  milk, 
2,779  gms.  (12) ;  koumiss,  482  gms.  (13) .    Total  ani- 
mal food 

Dec.  6 

143.8 
16.7 

138.3 
5.2 

163.7 

282.7 

2,547 
1,276 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Boiled  oatmeal,  418  gms.  (23);  boiled  rice,  225  gms. 
(25);  sugar,  92  gms.  (51);  apples,  300  gms.  (59); 
oranges,  699  gms.  (63).    Total  vegetable  food 

Total  food   

160.5 

143.5 

446.4 

3,823 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Vigoral,  311  gms.  (6);  milk,  4,937  gms.  (12).    Total 

Dec.  7 

195.1 
40.2 

- 
-   192.8 

44.1 

259.7 
467. 9 

3,658 
2,493 

- 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Bread,  Vienna,  35  gms.  (45);  charlotte  russe,  142 
gms.  (28);  boiled  oatmeal,  280  gms.  (23);  boiled 
rice,  371  gms.  (25);  rice  pudding,  226  gms.  (30); 
sugar,  53  gms.  (51) ;  apples,  320  gms.  (59) ;  oranges, 
1,683  gms.  (63) .    Toral  vegetable  food '. 

Total  food 

235.3 

236.9 

727.6 

6  151 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Beef  extract,  43  gms.  (6);  matzoon,  476  gms.  (14); 
milk,  581  gms.  (12) .    Total  animal  food 

Dec.  8 

38.5 
35.1 

37.8 
40.1 

43.8 
375. 5 

689 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Charlotte  russe,  71  gms.  (28) ;  rice  pudding,  737 gms. 
(30);   apples,  edible  portion,  798  gms.  (59);  or- 
anges, edible  portion,  661  gms.  (63) .    Total  vege- 

2, 056 

Total  food 

73.6 

77.9 

419.3 

2,  745 

34 

Table  7. — Foods  and  nutrients  consumed  by  C  W.  Miller,  Decembe.   5-10,  inclusive — 

Continued. 


Kinds  and  amounts  of  food  consumed. 

Nutrients  and  fuel  value. 

Date. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fuel 
value. 

1898. 
Dec.  9 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Beef  extract,  9  gms.  (6) ;  eggs,  edible  portion,  94 
gms.  (42);  milk,  823  gms.  (12).    Total  animal  food. 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Charlotte  russe,  170  gms.  (2»);  custard  pie,  839  gms. 
(27);  boiled  oatmeal,  8(igms.  (23);  boiled  rice,  300 
gms.  (25) ;  canned  tomato  soup,  113  gms.  (44) ;  su- 
gar, 25  gms.  (51);  apples,  edible  portion,  870  gms. 
(59)      Total  vegetable  food 

Orams. 
39.1 

65.1 

Grams. 
41.3 

126.5 

Grains. 
39.5 

^  459. 8 

Calories. 
706 

3,329 

Total  food                  .... 

104.2 

167.8 

499.3 

4  035 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Beef  extract,  5  gms.  (6);  milk,  1,985  gms.  (12).    To- 

Dec.  10 

61.8 
90.1 

75.4 
164.1 

93.6 
791.1 

1,339 

vegetable  FOOD. 

Charlotte  russe,  170  gms.  (28) ;  custard  pie,  867  gms. 
(27);  boiled  rice,  252  gms.  (25) ;  rice  pudding,  170 
gms.  (30):  sugar,19gms.  (51);  sugar  cakes,  .57  gms. 
(26);  wedding  cake,  85  gms.  (47);  apples,  1,296 
gms.  (59);  Malaga  grapes,  865  gms.  (62).    Total 
vegetable  food 

0,  i38 

Total  food   

151.9 

239.5 

884. 7 

6,477 

127.3 
41.9 

116.7 
63.8 

159. 2 
425.9 

2,260 

2, 510 

Average  per  day,  total  food 

169.2 

180.6 

685.1 

4,770 

In  addition  to  the  food,  Miller  consumed  on  the  different  days  the 
following  quantities  of  coffee  infusion:  December  5,  767  grams; 
December  6,  1,446  grams;  December  7,  693  grams;  December  8,  820 
grams;  December  9,  2,147  grams;  and  December  10,  798  grams. 
Numerous  analyses  in  this  laboratory  have  indicated  that  the  quantity 
of  nitrogen  in  coffee  infusion  is  so  minute  as  to  have  no  appreciable 
effect  upon  the  nitrogen  balance. 


DIETARY  STUDY  NO. 


256,  F.  ALBERT  (PREVIOUS  TO  THE 
i^ACE). 


This  study  covered  two  days  shortly  before  the  race.  It  began  with 
dinner  December  1  and  closed  with  breakfast  December  3.  The  meals 
were  taken  at  Albert's  home.  There  was  no  special  diet.  The  foods 
eaten  were  those  prepared  for  the  family.  As  previously  noted, 
Albert  avoided  an  cx(-ess  of  fats  and  sweets.  The  food  served  him 
at  each  meal  was  weighed  on  a  spring  balance  similar  to  that  used  in 
dietary  study  No.  2.57.  Due  account  was  taken  of  uneaten  residues. 
The  details  of  the  dietary  study  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


35 


Table  8. — Foods  mid  nutrients  cotisunied  by  Frank  Albert,  December  1-3. 


Kinds  and  amounts  of  food  consumed. 

Nutrients  and  fuel  value. 

Date. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fuel 
value. 

1898. 
Dec.  1-2 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Sirloin  steak,  lean,  142  gms.  (36) ;  roast  leg  of  lamb, 
170  gms.  (1) ;  gravy  from  lamb,  14  gms.  (39) ;  eggs, 
170  gms.  (42) ;  butter,  71  gms.  (43) ;  milk,  964  gms. 
(10).    Total  animal  food 

Grams. 
137.9 

56.6 

Orams. 
149.6 

29.5 

Grams. 
4.5.1 

335. 7 

Calories. 
2  141 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

White  bread,  198  gms.  (18);  graham  bread,  28  gms. 
(46);  boiled  oatmeal,  397  gms;  (21);  rice  pudding, 
213  gms.  (29);  sugar,  28  gms.  (51);  lettuce,  85  gms. 
(54);  stewed  peas,  85  gms.  (55);  prepared  mashed 
potatoes,  213  gms.  (32);  tomato  pickles, green,. 57 
gms.  (58);  apples,  as  purchased, 99  gms.  (60);  ba- 
nanas,  edible   portion,  85   gmg.    (61);    canned 
peaches,  142  gms.  (65) .    Total  vegetable  food 

Total  food 

1,883 

194. 6 

179.1 

380.8 

4,024 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Round  steak,  lean,  99  gms.  (37) ;  sirloin  steak,  lean, 
99  gms.  (36);  canned  salmon,  57  gms.  (41);  eggs, 
114  gms.  (42) ;  butter,  78  gms.  (43) ;  milk,  255  gms. 
(10).    Total  animal  food 

Dec.  2-3 

80.5 
62.4 

107.4 
19.9 

11.9 
356.3 

1,377 

VEGETABLE   FOOD. 

Bread, 283  gms.  (18);  boiled  oatmeal, 354  gms.  (21); 
rice  pudding,  184  gms.  (29);  sugar,  57  gms.  (51); 
stewed  peas,  113  gms.  (55);  plain  boiled  potatoes, 
100  gms.  (56) ;  tomato  pickles,  71  gms.  (58);  vege- 
table soup,  298  gms.  (9);    canned  peaches,  142 
gms.  (65).    Total  vegetable  food 

1  902 

Total  food 

142.9 

127.3 

368. 2 

3  279 

Average  per  day,  animal  food. 

109.2 
59.5 

128.5 
24.7 

28.5 
346.0 

1, 7.59 
1  892 

Average  per  day,  vegetable  food 

Arerage  per  day,  total  food 

168.7 

163.2 

374.5 

3,651 

DIETARY  STUDY  NO.   257,  F.  ALBERT  (DURING  THE  RACE). 

This  study  covered  the  six  days  of  the  race  (December  6  to  10, 
inclusive).  Some  of  the  subject's  food  was  brought  from  his  home; 
the  rest  was  prepared  at  his  stand  by  the  track  side.  The  conditions 
attending  the  dietary  study  were  less  favorable  for  accuracy  than 
were  those  in  the  study  made  with  Miller.  The  space  available  for 
the  work  was  very  small,  the  table  was  in  a  crowded  corner  where  it 
was  frequently  shaken,  and  the  weighings  had  to  be  made  very  quickly. 
For  these  reasons  it  did  not  seem  practicable  to  make  the  weighings  on 
anything  more  delicate  than  a  spring  balance.  A  very  accurate  spring 
balance  was  obtained  which  was  usually  read  to  one-fourth  ounce,  but 
when  time  allowed  could  be  made  to  indicate  one-eighth  ounce.  At 
first  each  lot  of  food  was  weighed,  but  as  the  amount  taken  at  a  time 
was  usually  quite  small  it  was  soon  seen  that  there  was  a  possibility  of 
considerable  error  in  the  weighings.  As  soon  as  practicable  (on  the 
second  day)  it  was  arranged  to  have  most  of  the  articles  of  food  used 
by  the  rider  kept  separate  from  that  of  his  attendants.  The  rider's 
foods  were  then  weighed  at  the  beginning  and   end  of  each  day,  thus 


3R 


greatly  roducino-  the  number  of  weighings  and  the  probable  error. 
Even  aftei  this  was  done,  however,  the  amounts  of  food  eaten  were 
probably  less  accurately  determined  than  in  dietary  studies  Nos.  255 
and  258.  During  the  last  half  of  the  race  Albert  consumed  the 
greater  part  of  his  food  while  resting  at  his  stand  beside  the  track. 
The  details  of  this  dietary  study  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Table  9. — Foods  and  nutrients  consumed  by  Frank  Albert,  December  5-10. 


Kinds  and  amounts  of  food  consumed. 

Nutrients  and  fuel  value. 

Date. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fuel 
value. 

1898. 
Dec.     5 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Beefsteak, lean, 85 gms.  (36);  beef  tea,  440  gms.  (5); 
eggs,  241  gms.  (42);  butter,  142  gms.  (15);  milk, 

Grams. 
79.9 

68.9 
16.7 

Grams. 

177.8 

14.0 
7.9 

Grams. 
21.9 

465.2 
247. 9" 

Calories. 
2,071 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Bread,  3G8  gms.  (18);  graham  bread,  85  gms.  (19) 
graham  crackers,  6  gms.   (48);  boiled  oatmeal, 
ti94  gms.  (22);  boiled  rice,  241  gms.  (24);  .sugar, 
03  gms.    (51);  celery, 78  gms.    (53);  apples,  376 

2, 320 

I'XCLASSIFIED  FOOD. 

Ginger   ale,   1,680  gms.  (34);   calf's-foot  jelly,  42 
gms.  (17);  malted  milk, 91  gms.  (16).    Total  un- 

1*158 

Total  food                                  

165.5 

199.7 

735.0 

5,549 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Beefsteak, lean, 28  gms.  (36);  beef  juice,  128  gms. 
(8);  lamb  chops,  78  gms.  (38);  chicken,  42  gms. 
(40);  chicken  broth,  170  gms.  (3);  eggs,  57  gms. 
(42);   butter,  64  gms.  (15);  milk,  116  gms.  (11). 

Dec.     {•> 

60.4 

37.0 
18.1 

97.9 

9.0 

7.1 

4.8 

431.8 
201. 3 

1,178 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Bread,198gms.  (IS);  graham  crackers,  6  gms.  (48); 
boiled  oatmeal,  :!17  gms.  (22):   sugar,  119  gms. 
(51);  licorice  drnps,  IS  gms.  (52);  celery,  78  gms. 
(53);  raw  tomatoes,  220  gms.   (57);  raw  apples, 
edible  portion,  21)9  gms.  (59);   California  grapes, 
99  gius.  ((12);    oranges,  edible  portion,  Kii  gms. 
(63);  slewed  prunes, 376  gms.  (33).     Total  vege- 

2,005 

rXCLASSIFIED   FOOD. 

Ginger  ale,  1,248  gms.   (34);   calf's-foot  jelly,   99 
gms.  (17);  malted  milk, 82  gms.  (16).    Total  un- 

978 

Total  food 

115.5 

114.0 

640.9 

4,161 

Dec.      7 

ANIM.VL  FOOD. 

Beefsteak,  loan,  50  gms.  (36);  beef  juice,  14  gms. 
(8);  l)eef-tea  tablets,  lOgm.s.  (7);  vigoral,18gms. 
(6);  lambchop.s,  M  gm.s.  (38);  chicken,  85  gms. 
(40);  chicken  broth,  283  gms.  (3);  egg.s, 369  gms. 
(42);  butter,  78  gms.   (15);  milk,  142  gms.  (11). 

107.0 
56. 8 

132.  7 
13.6 

7.5 
563.7 

1,704 

VEGET.\BLE   FOOD. 

White  bread,  177  gms.    (18);    graham  gems,   184 
gms.  (19);  boiled  oatmeal,  5;V2  gms.  (22);  sugar 
177  gms.  (51);  celcrv.  78  gms.  (53);  raw  tomatoes, 
29  gms.  (.57);  vegetable  .soup,  191  gins.  (9);  apples, 
edible  portion,  192  gins.  (.59);  Malaga  grapes,  l:i8 
gms.  (62);  f)ranges,e(lil)le  i)orti()n,326  gms.  (63); 
stewed  prunes,  170  gms.  (33).     Total   vegetable 
food 

2,670 

37 

Table  9. — Foods  and  nutrients  consumed  by  Frank  Albert,  December  5-10 — Continued. 


Kinds  and  amouuts  of  food  consumed. 

Nutrients  and  fuel  value. 

Date. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fuel 
value. 

1898. 

UNCLASSIFIED   FOOD. 

Grams. 

Gravis. 

Grams. 

Calorics. 

Dec.     7 

Cocoa  wine,  170  gms.  (35);  ginger  ale,  2,459  gms. 
(34);    calfs-foot    jelly,  213   gms.    (17);    malted 
milk,  78  gms.  (16).    Total  vinclassified  food 

Total  food                 

24.2 

6.8 

407.5 

1,833 

188.0 

153.1 

978.7 

6,207 

ANIMAL   FOOD. 

Dec.     8 

Beefsteak,  lean,  71  gms.  (36);  beefsteak,  71  gms. 
(2);  beef  juice,  11  gms.  (8);  beef-tea  tablets,  5 
gms.  (7);  vigoral,  27  gms.  (0);  mutton  broth, 539 
gms.  (4);  chicken,  64  gms.  (40);  chicken  broth, 
340  gms.  (3);  eggs,  283  gms.  (42);  butter,  198  gms. 
(15);  milk,  312  gms.  (11).    Total  animal  food 

VEGETABLE   FOOD. 

126. 2 

255.8 

15.3 

2,  959 

Bread,  170  gms.   (18);  "raised"  biscuits,  43  gms. 
(20);  doughnuts,  49  gms.  (50);  graham  gems,  397 
gms.  (19);  sugar,  142  gms.  (51);  apples,  390  gms. 
(59);   bananas,  92  gms.  (61);  Malaga  grapes,  99 
gms.  (62);  oranges,  edible  portion,  64  gms.  (63); 
pears,  283  gms.  (64).    Total  vegetable  food 

73.0 

23.4 

665.2 

3,  245 

UNCLASSIFIED  FOOD. 

Cocoa  wine,  198  gms.  (35);  ginger  ale,  1,581  gms. 
(34);    call's-foot    jelly,    269    gms.    (17);   malted 
milk, ;S6  gms.  (16).    Total  unclassified  food 

Total  food                   

20.5 

3.1 

303.5 

1,357 

219.7 

282.3 

984.0 

7,561 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Dec.     9 

Beefsteak,  lean,  170  gms.  (36);  chicken  (cooked) 
capon,  156  gms.  (40);   chicken  broth,   305  gms. 
(3);  eggs,  56  gms.    (42);   butter,  220  gms.   (15); 
milk  149  gms  (11).    Total  animal  food 

106.7 

229. 5 

0.1 

2, 597 

VEGET.ABLE  FOOD. 

Bread,  553  gms.  (18);  soda  crackers,  28  gms.  (49); 
graham  gems,  128  gms.  (19);  tapioca  pudding,  170 
gms.  (31);    sugar,  135  gms.    (51);  celery, 49  gms. 
(53);  apples,  418  gms.  (59);   Malaga  grapes,  156 
gms.  (62);  oranges,  234  gms.  (63);  pears,  319  gms. 
(64);  stewed  prunes,  319  gms.  (33).    Total  vege- 

9:3.8 

23.5 

758.3 

3,712 

UNCLASSIFIED  FOOD. 

Cocoa  wine,  43  gms.  (35);  ginger  ale,   1,623  gms. 
(34);    calfs-foot   jelly,   156   gms.   (17);    malted 
milk,  21  gms.  (16).    Total  unclassified  food 

Total  food     

12.4 

1.8 

225.0 

990 

212.9 

254.8 

989.4 

7,299 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Dec.   10 

Beefsteak,  64  gms.   (2);  lamb  chops,  71  gms.  (38); 
mutton  broth, 276  gms.  (4);  chicken, 85  gms.  (40); 
chicken  broth,  425  gms.  (3);  eggs,  114  gms.  (42); 
butter,  92  gms.  (15);  milk,  269  gms.  (11).    Total 

98.8 

158. 6 

11.1 

1,925 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Bread,  142  gms.  (18);  biscuits,  57  gms.  (20);  soda 
crackers,  28  gms.    (49);  graham  gems,  269  gms. 
(19);  tapioca  pudding,  142  gms.  (31);  sugar,  241 
gms.  (51);  apples,  edible  portion,  85  gms.   (59); 
Malaga  grapes,  78  gms.  (62);  pears,  edible  por- 
tion, 510  gms.  (64) .    Total  vegetable  food 

62.3 

22.  2 

G43.6 

3,101 

38 


Table  9. — Foods  and  nvirients  consumed  by  FranJc  Albert,  December  .5-^0— Continued. 


Kinds  and  amounts  of  food  consumed. 

Nutrients  and  fuel  value. 

Date. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fuel 
value. 

1898. 
Dec.  10 

rXCLASSIFIED   FOOD. 

Cocoa  wine,  113  gms.  (35) ;  ginger  ale,  914  gms.  (34) ; 
calf's-foot  jelly,  220  gms.  (17);   malted  milk,  7 
gms.  (16).    Total  unclassified  food 

Grams. 
13.2 

Grams. 
0.6 

Gi-ams. 

174.7 

Calories. 

"lie 

Total  food 

174.3 

181.4          829.4 

5,802 

Average  per  day,  animal  food  . 

96.5 
65.3 
17.5 

175.4 
17.6 
4.5 

11.1 
588.0 
260. 5 

2  072 

2,842 
1182 

Average  per  dav,  unclassified  food    

179.3 

197.5 

859.6 

6,096 

The  amount  of  coffee  infusion  consumed  on  the  different  days  was  as 
follows:  December  5,  857  ^rams;  December  6,  1,951  grams;  Decem- 
ber 7,  1,707  j^rams;  December  8,  2,431  grams;  December  9,  1,427 
grams,  and  December  10, 1,638  grams.  On  December  6,  617  grams  of 
tea  infusion  was  consumed.     None  was  drunk  on  the  following  days. 

As  previousl}"  noted,  it  was  possible  to  observe  the  diet  and  col- 
lect the  urine  of  this  subject  from  noon  of  the  Thursday  to  noon  of 
the  Saturday  before  the  race.  This  period  covered  practical!}"  the  last 
day  of  active  training  and  the  first  da}'  of  comparative  rest  before  the 
contest.  The  results  of  observations  of  food  consumption  for  these 
two  days  are  shown  in  Table  8,  above.  On  the  first  day  the  food  con- 
tained 195  grams  of  protein  (31.2  of  nitrogen)  and  4,025  calories  of 
energy;  on  the  second,  143  grams  of  protein  (22.9  of  nitrogen)  and 
3,280  calories.  During  the  two  days  the  subject  eliminated  24.5  and 
14.1  grams  of  nitrogen,  respectively,  in  the  urine  (see  p.  50).  Thus, 
while  the  potential  energy  of  the  diet  was  but  very  little  above  the 
averages  found  for  farmers,  mechanics,  and  professional  men,  and  con- 
sidera]>ly  less  than  the  average  of  college  athletes  in  studies  made  in 
the  United  States,^  the  protein  was  considerably  higher  than  in  the 
former  and  rather  higher  than  in  the  latter.  It  appears,  however,  that 
a  consid(;rable  portion  of  this  protein  was  stored  in  the  body,  since  the 
urine  contained  much  less  nitrogen  than  the  food,  and  the  amount  in  the 
feces  could  account  for  more  than  a  part  of  this  difference. 

DIETARY  STUDY  NO.  258,  H.  PILKINGTON. 

This  study  covered  the  first  three  days  of  the  I )i cycle  race  (December 
5  to  7,  inclusive).  The  food  was  prepared  in  the  same  way  as  that 
served  Miller  (No.  255),  and  the  same  methods  were  followed  in 
weighing  the  food  consumed  and  collecting  the  samples.  The  details 
of  the  dietary  study  follow: 

'  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Buls.  21  and  75;  also  U.  S.  Deot. 
Agr.  Ycarlxxjk,  1898,  p.  450;  Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1897,  p.  153. 


39 

Table  10. — Foods  and  nutrients  consumed  by  Henry  Pilkington,  December  5-7,  inclusive. 


1 
Kinds  and  amounts  of  food  consumed. 

Nutrients  and  fuel  value. 

DatP. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fuel 
value. 

1898. 
Dee.     5 

ANIMAL   FOOD. 

Eggs,  79  gms.  (42_);  milk,  1,600  gms.  (12);  koumiss, 
4  5''2  gms  (13)      Total  animal  food  

&rams. 
223. 6 

14.2 

Grams. 
185. 6 

3.0 

Grains. 
279.6 

204.8 

Calories. 
3,789 

VEGETABLE   FOOD. 

Boiled  oatmeal,  506  gms.  (23);  boiled  rice,  574  gms. 
(25);  sugar,  89  gms.  (51) ;  apples,  19  gms.  (59).    To- 

926 

Total  food    

237.8 

188.6 

484.4 

4, 715 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Vigoral,85  gms.  (6);  eggs, 46  gms.  (42);  milk, 1,496 
gms.  (12);  koumiss, 3,233 gms.  (13).    Total  animal 

Dec.     0 

181.0 
9.8 

146.5 
1.7 

224.  0 
208.0 

3,023 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Boiled  oatmeal, 131  gms.  (23);  boiled  rice, 756  gms. 
(25);  sugar,  86  gms.  (51);  oranges,  255  gms.  (63). 

909 

Total  food 

190.8 

148.2 

432.0 

3, 9.32 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Vigoral,  156  gms.  (6);  butter,  2S  gms.  (43);  milk, 
4,165  gms.  (12);  koumiss,  175  gms.  (13).    Total  an- 

Dec.     7 

156. 5 
47.8 

189.0 
8.9 

217.  6 
393.7 

•\"91 

VEGETABLE   FOOD. 

Bread,  307  gms.  (45);  boiled  oatmeal,  768  gms.  (23); 
boiled  rice,  350  gms.  (25);  sugar,  80  gms.  (51) ;  ap- 
ples, 150  gms.  (59);  oranges,  85  gms.  (63).    Total 

1,893 

Total  food                                         

204.3 

197.9 

611.3 

5,184 

187.0 
23.9 

173.7 
4.5 

240.4 

268.8 

3, 368 

1,242 

210.9 

178.2 

509.2 

4,G10 

The  amount  of  coffee  infusion  consumed  on  the  different  days  was 
as  follows:  December  5,  552  grams;  December  6,  -±57  grams,  and 
December  7,  605  grams. 

In  the  preceding  tables  the  fuel  value  of  the  diet  was  calculated  by 
Rubner's  factors,  which  are  in  common  use.  According  to  these  each 
gram  of  protein  in  the  average  mixed  diet  has  a  fuel  value  of  4.1 
calories,  each  gram  of  fat  9.3,  and  each  gram  of  carbohydrates 
4.1  calories.  These  factors  were  proposed  by  Rubner  in  1885,^  and 
were  based  upon  such  data  as  were  available  at  the  time.  A  large 
amount  of  experimental  research  has,  however,  accumulated  within 
recent  years  which  makes  it  possible  to  determine  these  factors  with  a 
closer  approach  to  accuracy.  Atwater  and  Bryant  recently  published 
an  article  which  contains  a  general  summfiiy  ~  of  the  data  bearing  upon 
the  determinations  of  factors  for  estimating  the  fuel  value  of  the 

>Ztschr.  Biol.,  21  (1885),  p.  377. 

=*  Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1899,  p.  73. 


40 

various  nutrients  in  different  kinds  of  food  materials  and  in  ordinary 
mixed  diet.  In  the  article  referred  to  the  factors  4.0,  8.9,  and  4.0  are 
proposed  as  expressing-  much  more  clearly  the  average  fuel  value  of  1 
gram  of  protein,  fats,  and  carbohydrates,  respectively,  than  do  the 
corresponding  factors  of  Rubner. 

In  deducing  these  factors  the  results  of  a  considerable  amount  of 
late  experimental  inquiry  were  summarized,  including*  (1)  anal3'ses 
of  over  4,000  specimens  of  American  food  materials;  (2)  a  large  num- 
ber of  European  and  American  determinations  of  the  nitrogen  factor 
of  protein  and  of  the  heats  of  combustion  of  food  materials  and  of  the 
proteids,  fats,  carbohydrates,  and  other  compounds  occurring  in  them; 
(3)  a  considerable  number  of  determinations  of  the  ratio  of  the  heat 
of  combustion  of  solids  of  urine  to  the  amount  of  nitrogen  present 
including  40  late  American  determinations  of  the  urine  of  men  sub- 
sisting upon  different  diets,  made  chiefly  in  connection  with  digestion 
experiments;  (4)  the  proportion  of  different  kinds  of  food  materials 
and  of  nutrients  in  the  ordinar}'  mixed  diet,  as  shown  by  the  results  of 
185  dietary  studies  lately  made  in  the  United  States;  and  (5)  the 
digestibility  of  the  nutrients  of  different  food  materials,  as  indicated 
by  European  and  American  digestion  experiments,  including  nearly 
100  experiments  lately"  made  in  the  United  States  on  the  digestibility 
of  a  mixed  diet  by  healthy  men. 

Most  of  these  data  have  accumulated  since  Rubner  made  his  estimates 
in  1885.  Thus  for  the  heat  of  combustion  of  urine,  which  is  an 
important  factor  in  determining  the  fuel  value  of  the  protein,  he  had 
onl}'  the  results  of  a  small  number  of  determinations  on  the  urine  of 
dogs.  Moreover,  Rubner's  estimates  were  based  upon  determinations 
of  heats  of  combustion  by  the  Thompson-Stohmann  calorimeter,  which 
has  been  found  to  give  lower  results  than  are  obtained  b}^  the  more 
highl\'  developed  bomb  calorimeter  now  commonly  used. 

In  discussing  the  factors  for  fuel  value  as  proposed  by  Rubner  and 
those  as  proposed  by  Atwater  and  Bryant,  it  is  necessary  to  carefully 
define  the  terms  used.  The  sense  in  which  the  expression  "fuel  value" 
is  here  used  is  stated  in  the  following  definition: 

"B}"  fuel  value  is  understood  the  energy  (heat  of  combustion)  of  the 
material  of  the  food  which  is  capable  of  oxidation  in  the  bod3^  For 
the  total  food  it  is  the  total  energy  less  that  of  the  corresponding 
unoxidized  materials  of  the  feces  and  urine.  For  the  protein  it  is 
likewise  the  total  heat  of  combustion  less  that  of  the  corresponding 
unoxidized  residues  of  these  excretions.  For  the  fats  and  carbohy- 
drates it  is  the  total  energy  of  the  food  less  that  of  the  corresponding 
unoxidized  material  of  the  feces." 

Rubner's  fuel  value  or  "Warmewerth"  of  protein  was  obtained  in 
practically  the  same  way  as  the  new  factor  for  the  fuel  value  of  pro- 
tein.    In  his  "  Wiii'mewerth  "  of  fats  and  carbohydrates,  however,  no 


41 

allowance  was  made  for  the  amounts  lost  in  the  feces.  The  difference, 
therefore,  between  Rubner's  ' '  Warmewerth  "  and  the  term  fuel  value 
here  used  is:  For  the  fats  and  carbohydrates,  Rubner's  "Warmewerth" 
is  the  total  heat  of  ^combustion,  whereas  the  fuel  value  is  that  amount 
less  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  corresponding- compounds  of  the  feces. 
For  the  protein  the  "  Warmewerth"  and  the  fuel  value  both  represent 
the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  total  protein,. less  the  sum  of  the  heats  of 
combustion  of  the  protein  of  the  feces  and  the  solids  of  the  urine.  Aside 
from  this  difference  there  is  a  further  variation  between  Rubner's  esti- 
mates for  "Warmewerth"  and  those  here  given  for  fuel  value,  which 
has  alreadj"  been  referred  to,  namely,  the  smaller  values  for  heats  of 
combustion  as  determined  by  the  Thompson-Stohmann  calorimeter 
upon  which  Rubner  first  based  his  factors. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  only  just  to  say  that  considering  the  paucity  of 
Rubner's  data  and  the  fact  that  he  made  no  allowance  for  either  the 
undigested  material  or  the  metabolic  products  of  the  feces  properly 
belonging  to  the  carbohydrates  and  fats,  the  results  are  certainly  very 
close  to  those  arrived  at  by  the  use  of  the  more  extensive  data  now 
available. 

The  data  given  in  some  detail  in  Tables  T,  9,  and  10  are  summarized  in 
Table  11.  This  table  also  gives  the  fuel  value  of  the  food  as  computed 
b}^  the  old  and  the  new  factors.  In  addition,  there  are  added  for  pur- 
poses of  comparison,  the  fuel  values  actually  found  b}"  experiment. 
These  latter  values  are  in  eveiy  instance  slightl}^  lower  than  those 
computed  by  use  of  the  new  factors,  and  are  very  much  lower  than  the 
values  as  computed  b}"  use  of  the  old  factors.  The}"  indicate  that  in 
these  particular  cases  even  the  new  factors  are  somewhat  too  large. 
These  factors,  however,  were  applied  to  the  results  obtained  in 
twentj^-seven  experiments  made  in  connection  with  investigations  with 
the  respiration  calorimeter,  and  were  foiuid  on  the  average  to  give 
results  differing  by  only  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent  from  the  actual  fuel 
values  as  determined  by  experiment. 


Table  11. 


-Suvvnary  of  nutrients  and  fuel  value  of  food  con.mmed  eacJi    day  by  the 
different  riders. 


Subject  and  day. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Fuel 

By  old 
factors. 

value. 

By  new 
factors. 

MILLER. 

First  day,  Dec.  5 

Grams. 
290 
160 
235 
74 
104 
152 

Grams. 
218 
144 
237 

78 
168 
240 

Grams. 
533 
446 

728 
419 
499 

885 

Calories. 
5,397 
3,823 
6,151 
2,745 
4,035 
6,477 

Calories. 
5  ''3'' 

Second  dav,  Dec.  6 

3  706 

Third  dav,  Dec.  7 

5,961 

Fourth  dav,  Dec.  8 

Fifth  dav,  Dec.  9 

3,907 
6,284 

Sixth  dav,  Dec.  10 

Average  of  6  days 

169 

181 

585 

4,770 

4, 626 
4  583 

Fuel  value  as  actually  determined 



42 

Table   11. — Summanj  of  nutrients  and  fuel  value  of  food  consumed  each  day  by  the 
different  riders — Continued. 


Subject  and  day. 


First  day,  Dec.  5... 
Second  day,  Dec.  6. 
Third  day,"  Dec.  7.. 
Fourth  day,  Dec.  8. 
Fifth  day,  Dec. 9... 
Sixth  day,  Dec.  10  . 


Average  of  6  days 

Fuel  value  as  actually  determined. 


PILKINGTON. 


First  day,  Dec.  5... 
Second  day,  Dec.  6. 
Third  day,  Dee.  7.. 


Average  of  3  days 

Fuel  value  as  actually  determined. 


Protein. 


Orams. 
165 
116 
188 
220 
213 
174 


179 


238 
191 
204 


Orams. 
200 
114 
153 
282 
255 
181 


198 


189 
148 
198 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Orams. 
735 
641 
979 
984 
989 
829 


859 


484 
432 
611 


Fuel  value. 


By  old      By  new 

factors,      factors. 


Calories. 
5,549 
4,161 
6,207 
7,561 
7,299 
5,802 


6,096 


4,715 
3,932 
5,184 


4,610 


Calories. 
5,380 
4,043 
6,030 
7,326 
7,078 
5, 623 


5,913 

5,878 


4,570 
3,809 
5, 022 


4,467 
4,323 


FOOD  CONSUMPTION  OF  THE  BICYCLE  RACERS  COMPARED  WITH 
THAT  OF  OTHER  ATHLETES. 

The  food  consumption  of  these  bicycle  racers  is  compared  with  that 
of  other  athletes  and  of  different  classes  of  men  at  severe  and  at  ordi- 
nary occupations  in  Table  12,  which  follows: 

Table  12. — Comparison  of  average  daily  food  consumption  of  persons  with  severe  muscular 

work. 


3g 
A" 


9 
10 

11 
12 
13 

14 

15  I 

16  I 

17  j 

18  j 

19  1 


Miller  during  fi-day  race,  1898 

Pilkiiigton  during'3  days  of  the  6-day  race,  1898... 

Albert  during  6-day  race,  1898 

Albert  during  preliminary  period,  1898 

Weston,  5-day  preliminary  to  5-day  walk,  1870  6  .. 

Weston  during  5-day  walking  race,  18706 

Weston,  5  days  following  5-day  walking  race, 
1870  h 

Weston,  ninety-fifth  to  ninety-ninth  day  of  100- 
day  walk  (> 

Weston,  3-day  walking  race,  1877  c 

Weston,  6-day  preliminary  to  6-day  walking  race, 
1877  fZ 

Weston,  6  days  of  walk,  1877  d 

Miller  during  6-day  bicycle  race,  1897  e 

Sandow  in  time  of  exliibjtions  of  strcnglh/ 

Harvard  University  boat  crew,  (^aintiriilKc,  1898 17. 

Harvard  freslur)iin  Ixiat  crew,  Caniliridgc,  l.sy.s*;.. 

Harvard  rnivcrsity  hoatcri'W,  New  London, IX'.iKi/ 

Hin-v:ird  frcslunaii  hoiit  crew,  New  Lomloii,  l.s'jSf/. 

Captain  of  Harvard  freshman  crew.  New  London, 
1898  (7 

Yale  University  boat  crew,  New  Haven,  1898  <j 


Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Orams. 

Orams. 

169 

181 

211 

178 

179 

198 

169 

153 

149 

141 

.94 

66 

197 

168 

236 

65 

294 

195 

218 

102 

300 

158 

262 

192 

244 

151 

162 

175 

153 

223 

160 

170 

135 

152 

155 

181 

145 

170 

Carbohy- 
drates. 


Fuel 
value. 


Orams. 
585 
509 
859 
375  I 
226 
154 

454 

780 
941 
462 

606 
791 
502 
449 
468 
448 
416 

487 
375 


Calories. 
4,770 
4,610 
6,095 
3,650 
2, 850 
1,635 

4,230 

4,770 
6,877 
3,735 

5,185 
6,100 
4,460 
4,130 
4,620 
4,075 
3, 675 

4,315 
3,705 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio,  o 


5.9 
4.3 
7.3 
4.2 
3.6 
3.2 


3.9 
4.7 
3.1 

3.2 
4.6 
3.5 
5.2 
6.1 
5.2 
5.7 

5.7 
5.1 


a  Calculated  bv  dividing  the  sum  of  carbohydrates  and  2^  times  the  fat  by  the  amount  of  protein. 

b  Flint,  New  York  Med. .Jour.,  13  (1870),  653.    See  also  p.  13,  above. 

r,  Blyth,  I'roc.  Roy.  Soc.  [London] ,  37  (1884) ,  pp.  46-55.     See  also  p.  16,  above. 

d  Pavy,  Lancet,  1896, 1,  II,  passim.    See  also  p.  13,  above. 

e  Bryant,  Diet.  &  Hyg.  Gaz.,  15  (1K99), p. 393.    See  also  p.  14,  above. 

/Langworthy  and  Beal,  Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1896,  p.  158. 

0  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr,,  Ollicc  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  75. 


43 

Table  12. — Comparison  of  average  daily  food  consumption  of  persons  with  severe  muscular 

ivork — Continued. 


Pro- 

Fat. 

Carbohy- 

Fuel 

tein. 

drates. 

value. 

Grams. 

Grams. 

Grams. 

Calories. 

171 

171 

434 

4,070 

181 

292 

557 

5,740 

270 

416 

710 

7,885 

216-220 

95 

931 

5,595 

195 

242 

718 

5,995 

103 

150 

402 

3,465 

97 

130 

467 

3,515 

104 

125 

423 

3,325 

Nutri- 
tive 
value. 


Yale  University  boat  crew.  New  London,  1898  a... 

Foot-ball  team,  Connecticut,  18896 

Foot-ball  team,  California,  1897 c 

Dock  laborers,  Cronstadt,  Russia  d 

New  York  builder  (large  and  muscular),  average 

of  2  studies  e 

Average  of  14  mechanics'  families/ 

Average  of  10  farmers'  families/ 

Average  of  14  professional  men's  families/ 


4.6 
6.8 
6.1 
5.3 

6.5 
7.2 

7.8 
6.6 


aXJ.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  75. 
b  Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1891,  p.  128. 
c  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  84. 

(iVestnik  Obsh.  Hig.  Subed.  i  Prakt  Med.,  31   (1896),  No.  1,  Pt.VIII,p.4;   abs.  in  U.S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Experiment  Station  Record,  10  (1898-99),  p.  678. 

eU.S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bul.46, p.  51. 
/U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1898,  p.  450. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  the  bicycle  racers'  dietaries  are 
high  both  in  protein  and  energy.  On  the  other  hand,  the}"  did  more 
than  two  ordinary  daj's'  work  in  one.  Taking  into  account  the  nitrogen 
metabolized  in  excess  of  the  amount  supplied  by  the  food,^  we  may  say 
that  the  total  protein  metabolized  was  about  twice  as  much  as  the 
available  protein  of  the  food  of  the  average  American  mechanic  or 
professional  man  and  the  average  energy  about  50  per  cent  greater. 
Here,  however,  we  must  note  that  Albert's  diet  supplied  25  to  30  per 
cent  more '  energy  than  Miller's  or  Pilkington's.  The  college  boat 
crews  (studied  in  summer)  stand  about  midway  between  the  average 
of  men  of  ordinar}^  occupations  and  the  professional  bicycle  racers 
here  reported.  Weston's  diet  showed  such  great  variations  in  the 
different  studies  made  with  him  that  an  average  of  the  results  would 
be  of  doubtful  value.  Perhaps,  however,  it  may  be  safe  to  assume 
that  his  diet  during  the  last  daj^s  of  his  100-day  walk  would  repre- 
sent the  demands  of  his  body  when  worked  almost  up  to  its  capacity 
for  physical  exertion.  At  this  time  his  dietary  supplied  a  little  more 
protein  than  that  of  any  of  these  bicycle  racers  here  reported,  although 
the  amount  actually  metabolized  in  the  body  was  probablj^  more  nearly 
equal  to  that  observed  with  them.  As  regards  energy,  his  supply  was 
about  the  same  as  that  of  Miller  and  Pilkington  and  less  than  that  of 
Albert. 

The  nutritive  ratios  shown  in  Table  12  are  seen  to  vary  greath'.  In 
studies  of  the  kind  here  reported  it  seems  hardl}^  proper  to  attach 
great  importance  to  this  ratio,  for  it  would  seem  that  these  athletes 
were  able  to  supply  during  the  few  days  of  the  race  considerable 
protein  from  their  own  bodies,  and  that  the  food  was  selected  with  a 
view  to  easy  digestibility  rather  than  to  its  proportion  of  protein.     In 


'See  discussion  <if  nitrotren  balance,  p.  50. 


44 

other  ^^ords,  it  seemed  that  during  the  days  of  the  race  the  question  of 
a  well-balanced  ration  became  subordinate  to  that  of  an  easil}^  digested 
and  agreeable  one.  As  the  results  show  (see  p.  50),  deficiencies  in  the 
supply  of  protein  were  apparently  made  good  by  utilizing  material 
of  the  bod}^  tissue  without  injury,  but  it  is  evident  that  any  marked 
disturbance  of  the  digestive  apparatus  would  have  been  fatal  to  the 
prospects  of  any  contestant. 

If  the  nutritive  ratio  of  Miller's  diet  be  calculated  for  each  day  it 
will  be  found  to  be  narrow  at  first  (1:3.6  for  the  first  day)  and  gradu- 
ally widening  as  the  race  progressed,  until  at  the  end  it  was  decidedly 
wide  (1: 9.4  for  the  last  day).  This  is,  of  course,  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  at  first  almost  the  only  foods  were  milk  and  koumiss,  while 
later  large  quantities  of  cereals  were  used,  and  toward  the  last  the 
rider  was  allowed  to  indulge  in  fruits  and  pastry.  The  trainer's  rea- 
son for  thus  regulating  the  diet  was  to  insure  good  digestion  and 
regular  movements  of  the  bowels.  Whether  the  change  in  nutritive 
ratio  was  of  any  advantage  it  is  impossible  to  say.  No  such  change 
was  found  in  the  case  of  Albert. 

Notwithstanding  these  variations  a  consideration  of  the  nutritive 
ratios  is  not  without  interest.  Albert  shows  little  difference  in  this 
respect  from  the  average  American  families,  while  Miller  has  a  nar- 
rower ratio,  not  far  from  the  average  of  the  college  boat  crews. 
Pilkington,  who  remained  in  the  race  for  only  three  days,  shows  a 
still  narrower  ratio;  about  the  same  as  Miller's  ratio  for  the  same 
days.  Miller's  average  ratio  is  considerably  wider  than  an}-  ratio  found 
for  Weston,  but  had  the  former  not  been  allowed  to  indulge  in  fruit 
and  pastr}^  toward  the  end  of  the  race  there  would  have  been  little,  if 
an}',  difference. 

In  general  these  results  seem  rather  to  confirm  the  impression  that 
intense  exertion  is  best  supported  hj  a  diet  with  a  narrow  nutritive 
ratio;  that  is,  by  a  diet  with  a  large  amount  of  protein  in  proportion 
to  the  fat  and  carbohydrates. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Albert  consumed  considerable  amounts 
of  sugar,  taking  it  principally  in  the  form  of  ginger  ale.  The  use  of 
sugar  in  the  diet  of  soldiers  and  others  whose  work  is  heavy  and  pro- 
longed is  being  much  discussed.  It  is  sometimes  recommended  also 
for  athletes,  whose  exertions  are  intense  but  of  short  duration.  For 
the  latter  cases,  however,  it  has  been  more  generally  believed  that  a 
diet  consisting  largely  of  animal  food,  and  furnishing  more  protein,  is 
preferable.  This  subject  will  be  found  discussed  in  previous  bulletins 
of  this  Office.  ^ 

*  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  93,  and  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations  Bui,  75. 


45 
DIGESTION  EXPERIMENTS. 

In  order  to  determine  the  outgo  of  nitrogen  through  the  intestine, 
and  incidentally  the  digestibility  of  the  diet  under  the  conditions  of 
unusually  severe  work,  the  feces  from  each  of  the  subjects  were  col- 
lected and  the  portions  corresponding  to  the  food  eaten  during  the 
race  were  separated  and  analyzed.  The  methods  followed  in  these 
digestion  experiments  were  such  as  have  been  used  in  other  studies  of 
the  series  to  which  these  belong.^  The  separations  were  made  by 
means  of  lampblack  given  with  the  last  meal  before  the  race  and  the 
first  meal  after.  These  separations  were  not  very  satisfactorj^,  the 
diiferences  in  color  being  less  pronounced  than  is  usual.  This  was 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  subjects  did  not  take  meals  at  regular 
intervals,  but  ate  small  quantities  of  food  very  frequently,  so  that  the 
lampblack  would  be  more  likely  to  be  mixed  with  the  residues  of  pre- 
ceding or  succeeding  meals  than  under  ordinary  circumstances.  While 
these  errors  in  separation  may  be  sufiicient  to  somewhat  afi^ect  the 
results  when  considered  simply  as  those  of  digestion  experiments,  the}'' 
can  not  have  any  very  serious  influence  upon  the  main  question  studied, 
since  neither  the  balance  of  income  and  ovitgo  of  nitrogen  nor  that  of 
energy  could  be  much  altered  by  such  small  errors  as  may  have  occurred 
in  the  separation  of  the  first  and  last  portions  of  feces  in  a  six-da}^ 
metabolism  experiment. 

The  weight  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  feces  excreted  by  each  man  cor- 
responding to  the  food  eaten  during  the  days  covered  by  the  experi- 
ment was  as  follows:  Miller  (six  days),  252  grams;  Albert  (six  da^^s), 
235.6  grams,  and  Pilkington  (three  daj^s),  179.1  grams.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  dry  matter  of  the  feces  is  shown  in  Table  5. 

The  results  of  the  digestion  experiments  are  shown  in  Tables  13-15. 
The  amounts  of  the  different  nutrients  and  the  heats  of  combustion  are 
calculated  from  the  total  quantities  of  the  different  kinds  of  food  mate- 
rials consumed  and  their  composition  and  potential  energy  per  gram, 
as  shown  in  Tables  5  and  6.  The  difference  between  the  amounts  of 
nutrients  in  the  total  food  eaten  and  the  amounts  rejected  in  the  feces 
gives  the  amounts  actually  available  ^  to  the  body.  The  proportion  of 
any  given  nutrient  thus  digested  is  termed  its  coefficient  of  digestibility 
under  the  given  conditions.  The  heat  of  combustion  of  the  incompletely 
oxidized  matter  excreted  in  the  urine  ranged  from  1.32  to  1.23  calories 

lU.S.Dept.Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  21,  p.  57,  and  Bui.  53,  p.  25; 
also  Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1896,  p.  163. 

^  It  is  of  course  understood  that  the  feces  contain  not  only  the  undigested  residue 
of  the  food,  but  considerable  quantities  of  metabolic  products,  so  that  the  results  of 
experiments  of  this  kind  show,  not  the  quantities  of  nutrients  actually  digested,  but 
rather  the  approximate  amounts  which  are  actually  available  to  the  body  for  the 
building  of  tissue  and  the  yielding  of  energy.  For  discussion  of  this  subject  see  Con- 
necticut Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1897,  p.  156. 


46 

per  gram  of  protein  metabolized.  In  digestion  experiment  No.  95  the 
value  for  the  "heat  of  combustion  of  urine"  is  computed  from  the 
available  protein  (946  grams),  allowing  1.32  calories  of  energy  from 
each  gram  of  this  protein  as  unavailable  for  use  in  the  body  owing  to 
its  excretion  in  the  incompletely  oxidized  material  of  the  urine.  In 
experiment  No.  96  the  corresponding  value  is  obtained  b}^  multiplying 
the  available  protein  by  1.28,  and  in  experiment  No.  97  by  multiplymg 
the  available  protein  by  1.23,  these  being  the  factors  found  by  actual 
determinations  of  heat  of  combustion  of  the  urine  of  each  of  the 
subjects. 

Table  13. — Details  of  digestion  experiment  No.  95,  Miller. 


Labora- 
tory 
No.  of 
sample. 


8014 

(a) 

(a) 

2999 

3001 

3002 

(«) 
2994 
2993 
2992 
2991 
2989 

2990 


(a) 
(rt) 
(a) 


Food  materials. 


Vigoral 

Beef  extract . . . 

Egg.s,  raw 

Milk 

Koumir« 

Matzoon 

Bread 

Oatmeal 

Rice 

Rice  pudding . . 
Charlotte  ru.sse 

Sugar  cake 

Wedding  cake  . 

Custard  pie 

Tomato  soup... 

Sugar 

Apples 

Grapes 

Oranges 


Total. 


Feces  (water  free) 

Urine 

Amount  digested 

Coefficients  of  digestibility  (per  cent) 


Weight 

of 
material. 


Grams. 

438 

57 

310 

11,795 

7,620 

476 

35 

784 

1,608 

1,133 

553 

57 

85 

1,703 

113 

261 

4,064 

865 

3,043 


34, 900 


Protein 

(N.X6.25) 


Grams. 
CO 

8 

41 

363 

276 

15 

3 
16 
10 
36 
27 

4 

5 
97 

2 


1,014 


68 


946 
93.3 


Grains. 
8 
1 

33 

447 

197 

16 


4 

1 

29 

121 
7 
9 

168 
1 


1,081 


1,013 
93.7 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Grams. 
39 
5 


554 

344 

13 

19 

81 

159 

258 

140 

31 

55 

450 

6 

261 

577 

166 

353 


3,511 


3,463 
98.6 


Heat  of 
combus- 
tion 

(deter- 
mined). 

Calories. 

687 
76 

649 
8,504 
4,763 

272 
98 

474 

721 
1, 575 
1,787 

215 

338 

3,927 

49 

1,034 

2, 560 

848 
1,582 


29, 969 


1,278 

1, 183 

27, 498 

91.8 


a  Composition  as.sumed  from  previous  analysis  of  similar  materials. 
Tajjle  14. — Details  of  digestion  experiment  No.  06,  Albert. 


Labora- 
tory 
No.  of 
.sample. 

Food  materials. 

Weight 

of 

material. 

Protein 

(N.X6.25) 

Fat. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Heat  of 
combus- 
tion 
(deter- 
mined). 

Beefsteak 

Grams. 

404 

135 

1.53 

440 

15 

163 

815 

432 

1 ,  523 

1,120 

794 

1,.519 

45 

999 

Grams. 
94 
39 

9 
11 

2 
35 

9 
117 
54 
1.50 

9 
43 

6 
53 

Grams. 
10 
17 

Grams. 

Calorics. 
626 

2983 

do 

372 

3020 

Beef  juice 

51 

2996 

7 

117 

3019 

Beef-tea  tablets 

14 

(«) 

19 
27 
.50 
31 
118 
683 
59 
1 

663 

2995 

Mutton  broth  . 

294 

(a) 

(!hi(;kcn  

1,132 

2982 

(;hi<:k('ii  broth 

533 

(«) 

Ej^gs 

1,982 

3000 

Butter 

6, 356 

2998 

Milk 

63 
4 

148 

1,042 

3014 

Vigoral 

60 

3016 

Calf's-foot  jelly 

899 

oComposilion  assumed  from  prcvio\is  analy.sis  of  similar  materials. 


47 


Table  14. — Details  of  digestion  experiment  No.  96,  Albert — Continued. 


Food  materials. 


Weight 

of 
material. 


Protein 

(N.X6.25) 


Fat. 


Carbohy 
drates. 


Heat  of 
combus- 
tion 
(deter- 
mined). 


Soup 

Oatmeal 

Rice 

Crackers,  graham. 

Gems,  graham 

Bread,  graham 

Soda  crackers 

Biscuit 

Bread 

Doughnuts 

Tapioca  pudding. . 

Sugar 

Celery 

Tomatoes 

Apples 

Bananas 

Grapes 

Oranges 

Pears 

Prunes 

Ginger  ale 

Licorice  drops 

Cocoa  wine 

Malted  milk 


Grams. 

191 

1,573 

241 

12 

978 

85 

56 

100 

1,608 

49 

312 

877 

283 

249 

1,730 

92 

570 

759 

1,112 

865 

9,506 

18 

524 

315 


Total. 


30, 661 


Feces  (water  free) 

Urine 

Amount  digested 

Coefficients  of  digestibility  (per  cent) 


236 


Grams. 

8 

25 

7 

1 

103 

9 

5 

8 

171 

3 

16 


Grams. 
3 
10 
4 
1 
6 


46 


27 


Grams. 

9 

184 

42 

9 

594 

52 

41 

62 
827 

26 

25 

877 

9 

10 
246 

20 
109 

88 

157 

174 

1,006 

17 
188 
221 


Calories. 

78 

788 

241 

55 

3,112 

270 

251 

387 

4,497 

224 

348 

3,473 

57 

62 

1,090 

92 

559 

395 

712 

843 

3,992 

68 

749 

1,355 


1,074 


1,183 


5,158 


37,842 


101 


24 


973 
90.6 


1,159 
98.0 


5,076 
98.4 


1,229 

1,343 

35, 270 

93.2 


a  Composition  assumed  from,  previous  analysis  of  similar  materials. 
Table  15. — Details  of  digestion  experiment  No.  97,  PUkington. 


Food  materials. 


Vigoral 


Butter 

Milk 

Koumiss 

Bread 

Oatmeal  (boiled) 

Rice  (boiled) 

Sugar 

Apples 

Oranges 


Total. 


Feces  (water  free) 

Urine 

Amount  digested 

Coefficients  of  digestibility  (per  cent) 


Weight 

of 
material. 


Grains. 

241 

125 

28 

7,261 

7,930 

307 

1,405 

1,680 

254 

169 

340 


19, 740 


179 


Protein 

(N.X6.26) 


Grams. 
33 
17 


224 
287 
29 
28 
12 


40 


594 
93.7 


Grams. 

4 

13 

24 

275 

205 

4 

7 

1 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Grams. 
21 


535 


467 
87.3 


341 
358 
166 
146 
177 
254 
24 
39 


1,509 
98.9 


Heat  of 

com- 
bustion 
(deter- 
mined). 


Calories. 

323 

221 

222 

5, 234 

4,856 

896 

849 

803 

1,006 

106 

177 


14, 693 


981 

742 

12, 970 

88.3 


a  Composition  assumed  from  previous  analysis  of  similar  materials. 

The  results  tabulated  above  show  that  the  digestion  was  normal,  at 
least  as  regards  quantity;  in  other  words,  the  proportions  of  nutrients 
digested  and  made  available  b}^  these  men  with  severe  and  almost  con- 
tinuous muscular  exercise  were  not  essentially  different  from  those 
found  with  men  under  ordinary  conditions.^ 


^  Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1899,  p.  87. 


48 
METABOLISM  OF  NITEOGEN. 

Collection  and  mialysis  of  urine. — The  urine  of  each  twenty-foui 
hours  was  collected  in  glass  jars,  sealed,  and  carried  to  the  laboratory, 
where  it  was  measured  and  the  specific  gravity  and  nitrogen  content 
determined.  The  volume  was  measured  by  use  of  an  accurately  gradu- 
ated and  calibrated  glass  cylinder  of  2  liters  capacity.  The  specific 
gravity  was  determined  b}^  a  carefully  calibrated  spindle.  The  weight 
was  calculated  from  the  volume  and  specific  gravity  as  thus  found. 
The  nitrogen  was  determined  by  the  Kjeldahl  method  in  weighed 
samples  of  about  5  grams  each.  The  heat  of  combustion  was  deter- 
mined b}^  burning  in  oxygen  on  filter  blocks  in  a  bomb  calorimeter, 
as  elsewhere  described.^ 

Tests  for  aXbimiin  and  sugar  in  urine. — In  addition  to  the  quantita- 
tive determinations  already  mentioned,  each  daj^'s  urine  of  each  sub- 
ject was  tested  for  albumin  and  sugar.  No  trace  of  either  was  found 
in  any  of  the  samples. 

Nitrogen  lag. — Since  the  men  urinated  only  at  long  intervals,  it  is 
probable  that  in  many  cases  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  urine  formed 
on  one  da}^  maj^  have  been  carried  till  the  next,  so  that  the  excretion 
of  any  particular  day  may  indicate  very  little  as  regards  the  actual 
metabolism  of  that  day.  The  excretion  for  the  six  days,  however, 
probably  represents  more  accurately  the  nitrogen  metabolism  for  that 
period.  In  the  experiments  of  Dunlop,  Paton,  Stockman,  and  Mac- 
cadam,  referred  to  above,  the  greater  part  of  the  extra  excretion  of 
nitrogen  was  found  in  two  cases  on  the  day  following  that  on  which 
the  work  was  done,  and  in  one  case  on  the  second  day  following.  If 
there  had  been  a  similar  lag  in  the  excretion  of  nitrogen  by  the  sub- 
jects studied  in  the  bicycle  race,  the  figures  would  show  less  than  the 
total  amount  of  body  protein  actually  metabolized.  Such  a  discrepancy 
is  not  improbable,  but  there  are  two  reasons  for  thinking  that  it  may 
not  have  been  great.  In  the  first  place,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
extra  metaVjolism  of  body  protein  may  very  likely  have  taken  place 
mainly  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  race,  when  the  amount  of  work  was 
greatest.  If  this  were  true  the  excretion  of  this  extra  nitrogen  would 
be  practically  complete  before  the  end  of  the  week.  In  the  second 
place,  as  the  severe  muscular  work  continued  for  so  long  a  period, 
there  would  proliably  be  a  tendency  toward  equilibrium  of  total  nitro- 
gen metabolism  and  total  nitrogen  excretion,  in  which  event  the 
nitrogen  lag  would  continue  for  a  shorter  time  after  the  end  of  the 
experiment,  and  might  be  largely  covered  by  the  last  twelve  hours  of 
the  race,  in  which  the  amount  of  work  done  by  each  of  the  subjects 
was  comparatively  small. 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  69,  p.  23. 


49 

This  view  is  strongly  confirmed  by  the  results  obtained  b}^  Flint  ^  and 
by  Pavy^  in  studying  the  metabolism  of  Weston  during  the  days  of 
walking  and  the  days  which  followed  the  walks.  In  the  study  made  by 
Flint  the  ingestion  of  nitrogen  was  more  than  doubled  in  the  days 
following  the  race  while  the  excretion  was  not  noticeably  increased. 
Pavy  found  that  on  the  days  following  the  severe  exercise  there  was 
a  very  marked  diminution  in  the  amount  of  nitrogen  excreted  while 
the  amount  ingested  apparently  was  not  greatly  changed. 

The  following  tables  show  the  quantitative  data  determined  regard- 
ing the  urine  of  each  of  the  subjects: 

Table  16. — Statistics  of  urine — Miller,  December  5-10,  inclusive. 


Date. 

Volume. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Calcu- 
lated 
weight. 

Nitrogen. 

Heat  of  combustion. 

Per  cent. 

Total. 

Pergram^. 

Total. 

1898. 

C.c. 

1,845 

2,520 

2,376 

2,080 

1,605 

1,385 

1.028 
1.027 
1.029 
1.027 
1.028 
1.029 

Grams. 
1,897 
2,588 
2,444 
2,136 
1,650 
1,425 

1.85 
1.65 
1.89 
1.67 
1.86 
1.89 

Grains. 
35.1 
42.7 
46.2 
35.7 
30.7 
26.9 

Calories. 
0.143 
.148 
.148 
.138 
.156 
.152 

Calories. 
271 

6              

383 

7 

362 

8 

295 

9 

257 

10 

217 

Total 

11,810 
1,968 

12, 140 
2,023 

217.3 
36.2 

1,785 
298 

Table  17. — Statistics  of  urine — Albert,  December  1-3.     {Previous  to  the  race.) 


Date 

Volume. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Calcu- 
lated 
weight. 

Nitrogen. 

Heat  of  combustion. 

Per  cent. 

Total. 

Pergram.l    Total. 

1898. 

C.c. 
1,670 
960 

1.0275 
1.026 

Grams. 
1,716 

985 

1.43 
1.43 

Grams. 
24.5 
14.1 

Calories. 

Calories. 

2 

Total 

2, 630 
1,315 

2,701 
1,351 

38.6           0.114 

308 

19.3 

154 

Table  18. — Statistics  of  urine — Albert,  December  5-10,  inclusive. 


Date. 

Volume. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Calcu- 
lated 
weight. 

Nitrogen. 

Heat  of  combustion . 

Per  cent. 

Total. 

Pergram. 

Total! 

1898. 

C.c. 
1,340 
1,560 
1,680 
1,945 
910 
2,  ,565 

1.031 
1.030 
1.031 
1.031 
1.030 
1.027 

Grains. 
1,382 
1,607 
1,732 
2,006 
937 
2,634 

1.83 
2.04 
2.26 
2.25 
2.14 
1.51 

Grams. 
25.3 
32.8 
39.0 
45.1 
20.0 
39.8 

Calories. 
0.145 
.169 
.186 
.133 
.192 
.125 

Calories. 
200 

6 

256 

7.           

322 

8 

267 

9 

180 

10 

329 

Total         

10,000 
1,667 

10, 297 
1,716 

202.0 
33.7 

1,554 

259 

1  See  p.  13. 


20695— No.  98—01- 


50 


Table  19. — Statistics  of  urine — Pilkington,  December  5-10,  inclusive. 


Volume. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Calcu- 
lated 
weight. 

Nitrogen. 

Heat  of  combustion. 

Per  cent.  1    Total. 

Per  gram.     Total. 

1898. 

December  5 

6 

7 

C.c. 

1,880 

1        2, 720 

2, 220 

1.026 
1. 022 
1.029 

Grams. 
1,929 
2,780 
2, 264 

j   Grams. 
1.70  1         32.8 
1.57  1         43.6 
1.78            40.3 

Calories. 

0.118 

.116 

.142 

Calories. 
228 
322 
322 

Total 

'•        6,820 

9.  9.7.S 

6,973 
2,324 

116. 7 

872 

38. 9 

291 

BALANCE  OF  INCOME  AND  OUTGO  OE  NITROGEN. 

From  the  data  alread}^  given  regarding  food,  feces,  and  urine,  the 
balance  of  income  and  outgo  of  nitrogen  can  be  calculated.  In  the 
table  which  follows  are  given  the  average  amounts  of  nitrogen  per 
day  in  the  food,  feces,  and  urine  of  each  of  the  subjects.  The  accuracy 
of  each  balance  of  income  and  outgo  of  nitrogen  is  proportional  to 
that  of  the  corresponding  dietary  study.  As  the  bladder  was  not 
emptied  regularly  at  midnight,  it  is  believed  that  any  attempt  to  state 
the  balance  b}'  days  would  be  misleading.  The  average  amounts  of 
nutrients  consumed  are  also  shown  in  the  table: 


T.VBLK  20. — Nutrients  and  energy  of  food  and  nitrogen  balance  in  the  three  experiments. 

Average  per  day. 


Dura- 
tion of 
experi- 
ment. 

Income  in  food. 

Nitrogen. 

Subject. 

Pro- 
tein, a 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fuel 
value. 

In 
food. 

In 
urine. 

In 
feces. 

Loss. 

Miller 

Days. 
6 
6 
3 

Grams. 
169 
179 
211 

Gi'ams. 
181 

Grams. 

585 

Calories 
4,770 
6,096 
4,610 

Grams. 
629.4 
C29.1 
d36.0 

Grams. 
36.2 
33.7 
38.9 

Grams. 
1.8 
2.6 
2.2 

Grams. 
8.6 

Albert        .     ... 

198              559 
178              509 

7.1 

Pilkington 

5.1 

a  This  does  not  include  the  nonproteid  nitrogenous  constituents  of  meat  extracts  and  vigoral.  See 
note  on  p.  30. 

tiThis  includes  2.3  grams  of  nonproteid  nitrogen  in  meat  extract  and  beef  juice  omitted  in  ta,ble  of 
food  consumed,  p.  33. 

f" Includes  0.4  grams  of  nonproteid  nitrogen  in  meat  extract  and  beef  juice  omitted  in  table  of  food 
consumed,  p.  36. 

^Includes  2.3  grams  of  nonproteid  nitrogen  in  meat  extract  and  beef  juice  omitted  in  table  of  food 
consumed,  p.  39. 

It  will  be  noted  that  notwithstanding  the  large  amounts  of  protein 
and  energy  in  the  dietaries  each  of  the  subjects  lost  a  considerable 
amount  of  nitrogen  during  the  period  of  the  race.  In  addition  to  the 
large  amount  of  protein  in  his  food,  averaging  211  grams,  the  rider 
who  continued  in  the  race  three  days  (Pilkington)  metabolized  about 
33  grams  of  body  protein,  equivalent  to  about  41  ounces  of  lean  flesh 
per  day.  That  is  to  say,  the  total  nitrogen  excreted  in  urine  and  feces 
exceeded  the  total  nitrogen  of  the  food  by  5.1  grams  per  day,  which 
(multiplied  by  6.25)  corresponds  to  33  grams  of  protein,  which  must 
have  been  supplied  from  the  store  in  the  body.    The  body  protein  was 


51 

thus  reduced  by  33  grams  per  day.  Assuming  lean  flesh  to  contain 
25  per  cent  protein,  this  would  correspond  to  132  grams,  or  about  4f 
ounces  per  day. 

The  subjects  who  rode  six  days  (Miller  and  Albert)  had  average  daily 
incomes  of  169  and  179  grams  of  protein,  respectivel}'.  In  addition  to 
this  Miller  metabolized  about  54  grams  of  body  protein,  equivalent  to 
about  8  ounces  of  lean  flesh,  and  Albert  about  14  grams  of  body  pro- 
tein, equivalent  to  about  6i  ounces  of  lean  flesh  per  day.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  Weston,  when  studied  by  Flint,  lost  an  even  greater 
amount  of  nitrogen  per  day  (10  grams,  equivalent  to  62.5  grams  of 
protein),  while  the  same  pedestrian,  when  studied  by  Pavy  a  few  3^ears 
later  under  similar  conditions  as  regards  exertion,  consumed  much 
larger  amounts  of  proteid  food,  and  thus  apparenth^  received  more 
nitrogen  than  he  excreted.  The  experiments  upon  Weston  seemed  to 
show  that  whenever  he  subjected  himself  to  severe  exertion  he  metab- 
olized large  amounts  of  protein,  bod}^  protein  being  drawn  upon  in 
some  cases  while  in  others  sufficient  food  was  consumed  to  protect  the 
tissues  from  such  loss. 

In  the  present  experiments  none  of  the  three  subjects  consumed 
sufficient  food  to  avoid  this  loss  of  body  protein,  although  all  were 
supplied  with  as  much  food  as  they  wished,  and  could  have  had  any 
desired  quantity  of  readily  available  protein.  Why  the  body  should 
use  its  own  substance  under  such  circumstances  is  a  question  which  at 
present  can  not  be  satisfactorily  answered.  The  fact  that  such  was  the 
case,  each  of  the  contestants  who  finished  the  race  consuming  during 
the  period  body  protein  equivalent  to  2  or  3  pounds  of  lean  flesh,  and 
that  no  injury  resulted  therefrom,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  these 
men  had  stores  of  protein  which  could  be  metabolized  to  aid  in  meet- 
ing the  demands  put  upon  the  body  by  the  severe  exertion,  without 
robbing  an}^  of  the  working  parts,  and  at  the  same  time  relieving  the 
system  of  a  part  of  the  labor  of  digestion.  Possibly  the  ability  to 
carry  such  a  store  of  available  protein  is  one  of  the  factors  which 
make  for  phj^sical  endurance. 

There  is,  however,  one  source  of  outgo  of  nitrogen  which  has  not 
been  taken  into  account  in  these  experiments,  and  which  may  be  of 
considerable  importance,  namely,  the  elimination  of  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  urea  in  the  perspiration.  The  quantity  of  nitrogen  which  may 
thus  be  eliminated  may  be  considerable.  Schaefer  ^  cites  various  deter- 
minations of  the  quantity  of  urea  and  nitrogen  excreted  in  the  perspi- 
ration. Thus  Favre  found  0.044  gram  urea  per  1,000  cubic  centimeters 
of  perspiration,  and  Funke  1.55  grams  urea  in  1,000  cubic  centimeters 
of  perspiration.  Argutinsky  found  0.363  and  0.410  gram  of  urea  in 
225  and  330  cubic  centimeters  of  perspiration,  respectively.    The  same 

1  Text-book  of  Physiology,  Vol.  I,  pp.  671-673. 


52 

investigator  also  found  0.7  gram  of  nitrogen  by  extracting  with  dis- 
tilled water  the  clothes  worn  by  subjects  actively  walking  or  climbing 
during  a  considerable  portion  of  the  da}^  In  experiments  with  the 
respiration  calorimeter^  the  amount  of  nitrogen  found  in  the  clothes 
by  extraction  with  distilled  water  varied  from  0.2  to  0.4  gram  per 
da}'.  C.  C.  Easterbrook  ^  found  in  some  experiments  carried  on  upon 
himself  that  the  perspiration  contained  from  0.1  to  0.3  per  cent  urea. 

A  still  more  pronounced  elimination  of  nitrogen  in  the  perspiration 
was  found  by  Eijkmann^  in  experiments  carried  on  in  the  tropics  upon 
some  Malay  medical  students.  Three  experiments  were  made.  The 
first  lasted  12  hours,  during  which  0. 222  gram  of  nitrogen  was  excreted. 
The  second  experiment  continued  24  hours,  during  which  time  there 
was  found  in  the  perspiration  0.761  gram  of  nitrogen.  The  third 
experiment  likewise  continued  24  hours,  and  there  was  an  elimination 
of  nitrogen  in  the  perspiration  amounting  to  1.362  grams.  The  sub- 
jects were  engaged  in  light  occupation. 

It  is  possible,  therefore,  that  the  loss  of  body  nitrogen  may  have 
been  appreciablj^  greater  than  we  have  calculated — perhaps  one-fifth 
greater. 

METABOLISM  OF  ENERGY. 

Total  energy  metabolized.- — The  total  income  of  energy  in  the  food 
and  the  outgo  in  urine  and  feces  in  the  difierent  experiments  has 
already  been  shown  in  Tables  13-15.  The  difi'erence  between  the 
income  and  outgo  has  been  called  the  available  energy  of  the  food. 
The  energy  of  the  material  actually  oxidized  in  the  body  may  be  greater 
or  less  than  the  available  energy  of  income  according  as  the  subject  is 
losing  or  storing  bod}^  protein  and  fat. 

The  nitrogen  lost  by  the  subjects  during  the  time  of  the  investiga- 
tion is  taken  as  a  measure  of  body  protein  metabolized  in  excess  of  the 
protein  in  the  food  consumed.  The  energy  which  the  body  obtained 
from  this  protein  may  be  calculated  and  the  estimate  for  the  energy  of 
the  food  increased  by  a  corresponding  amount. 

As  regards  the  energy  obtained  by  the  body  in  these  experiments 
from  the  combustion  of  its  non nitrogenous  constituents — fat  and  per- 
haps carbohydrates — we  have  no  positive  knowledge.  It  might  be 
supposed  that  changes  in  the  weight  of  the  body  would  be  due  to  gain 
or  loss  of  lean  flesh  or  of  fat.  If  this  were  the  case  the  amount  of  fat 
gained  or  lost  would  be  indicated  by  the  change  in  weight  after  making- 
allowance  for  the  change  in  lean  flesh,  corresponding  to  the  gain  or 
loss  of  nitrogen.     The  changes  in  weight  of  the  men  studied  were 

'  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  69,  and  unpublished  material. 
''Scottish  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.,  6  (1900),  p.  120. 

■'Arch.  Path.  Anat.  u.  Physiol.  [Virchow],  131  (1893),  p.  170.  Also  abstracted  in 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Eul.  45. 


53 

approximately  determined  by  weighing  the  men  dail}^  (usuallj^  in 
riding  costume)  as  nearly  at  midnight  as  possible.  Making  the  calcu- 
lation just  indicated  and  computing  the  liberation  or  storage  of  energy 
which  would  correspond  to  the  apparent  loss  or  gain  of  fat  we  reach 
impossible  results,  the  indicated  metabolism  of  energy  sometimes  being 
a  negative  quantity  and  at  other  times  exceeding  25,000  calories  in  a 
day.  In  view  of  this  and  of  the  well-known  fact  that  the  water  con- 
tent of  the  body,  as  well  as  that  of  the  clothing,  is  subject  to  consider- 
able variations,  we  are  forced  to  regard  the  fluctuations  of  body  weight 
as  being  chiefly  due  to  gain  or  loss  of  water.  That  the  riders  may 
have  lost  some  fat  during  the  race  is  certainly  not  improbable;  but 
as  we  have  no  means  of  determining  its  amount  we  are  forced  to 
neglect  this  source  of  energy  in  computing  the  amount  metabolized. 
Assuming  that  all  the  available  energy  of  the  food  was  metabolized 
and  adding  to  this  energy  the  estimated  heat  of  combustion  of  the 
protein  contributed  by  the  body,  we  obtain  the  results  given  in  the 
following  table: 

Table  21. — Computation  of  energy  of  material  metabolized  exclusive  of  body  fat  lost. 


Subject. 

Duration 
of  exper- 
iment. 

Total 
energy 
metabo- 
lized. 

Average 
per  day. 

Days. 
6 
6 
3 

Calories. 
28, 917 
36,441 
13,391 

Calorics. 
4,820 

Albert 

C,  074 

Pilkington     

4,464 

The  figures  in  Table  21  thus  show  the  actual  energy  metabolized 
according  to  the  data  obtained  for  the  total  energy  of  income  and 
outgo  as  determined  by  the  heats  of  combustion  of  foods,  feces,  and 
urine  and  the  estimated  energy  from  the  body  protein  used. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  data  do  not  show  how  much 
of  other  body  material  than  protein  was  lost  during  the  experiment. 
Of  course  the  only  way  to  determine  this  loss  would  be  by  a  respira- 
tion apparatus.  The  ideal  experiment  would  be  made  in  a  respiration 
calorimeter  with  a  bicycle  ergometer  to  show  the  balance  of  income  and 
outgo  of  energy  as  well  as  material.  Such  experiments  are  being  made 
with  the  respiration  calorimeter  at  Wesley  an  University,  although  not 
with  athletes  capable  of  such  exertion  as  the  leading  contestants  in  the 
race  here  referred  to. 

SUMMARY. 

The  bicycle  race  at  the  Madison  Square  Garden  in  1898  covered  142 
consecutive  hours,  from  12,08  a.  m.  on  Monday,  December  5,  to  10.08 
p.  m.  Saturday,  December  10.  During  this  time  the  chief  contestants 
took  only  such  rest  or  sleep  as  was  absolutel}^  necessary,  working  on 
an  average  of  about  five-sixths  of  the  whole  day,  and  sleeping  very 


54 

little.  Of  the  three  contestants  in  the  race  who  served  as  subjects  for 
the  investigation  reported  in  this  bulletin,  two  were  experienced  and 
held  out  to  the  end,  while  the  third  withdrew  on  the  fourth  day  of* the 
race.     During  the  first  72  hours  of  the  race  he  had  ridden  863  miles. 

The  subjects  who  continued  in  the  race  until  its  close  won  first  and 
fourth  places,  respectiveh^  The  winner,  C.  W.  Miller,  was,  as  previ- 
ousl}^  stated,  rather  short  but  very  muscular.  During  the  first  five 
days  of  the  race  he  rode  about  21  hours  and  slept  about  1  hour  each 
day.  On  the  last  da}'  he  rested  and  slept  more,  but  even  when  this  day 
is  included  he  worked,  on  an  average,  20  hours  out  of  the  24,  and  of 
the  4  hours  of  rest  only  about  1-  hour  and  20  minutes  was  spent  in 
sleep.  His  tremendous  endurance  is  shown,  not  only  by  his  riding 
2,007  miles  during  the  week,  but  perhaps  even  more  strikingly  by  the 
fact  that  the  fatigue  and  strain  produced  no  sign  of  either  physical 
or  mental  weakness. 

The  second  subject,  Frank  Albert,  was  older  than  Miller,  2  or  3 
inches  taller,  and  weighed  several  pounds  less.  His  labor  was  not 
quite  so  intense  and  severe,  since  he  rode  about  185  miles  per  day  less 
and  did  not  have  such  close  rivals  for  his  position  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  race  as  did  Miller.  Nevertheless,  the  feat  of  riding  109  of  142  con- 
secutive hours  and  covering  1,822  miles  within  this  period  is  sufficiently 
remarkable.  His  condition  at  the  end  of  the  race  was  apparently  as 
good  as  at  the  end  of  the  first  day. 

The  kind  of  food  consumed  by  Miller  was  determined  by  his  trainer, 
and  for  the  most  pai't  was  carefully  planned  in  advance  of  the  race  in 
accordance  with  experience  gained  in  similar  contests,  and  consisted  of 
simple  foods,  most  of  them  liquid  or  semiliquid.  No  water  was  drunk 
during  the  contest.  No  alcoholic  beverage,  except  in  so  far  as  the  very 
small  quantities  of  alcohol  in  koumiss  might  entitle  it  the  appellation, 
was  used.  Considerable  quantities  of  coffee  were  also  consumed  after 
the  first  da}^,  but  no  other  stimulant  or  beverage. 

Albert's  food  was  much  more  varied  than  Miller's  and  not  so  strictly 
governed  by  his  trainer. 

The  foods  eaten  by  Pilkington  on  the  three  days  during  which  he 
remained  in  the  race  were  similar  to  those  which  Miller  consumed  on 
the  same  days.  The  amount  of  each  food  used  by  each  rider  was 
determined  by  weighing,  and,  unless  its  composition  was  alread}^  fairly 
well  known,  each  food  was  sampled  and  analyzed.  Thus  the  actual 
nutrients  consumed  by  each  subject  were  determined. 

The  urines  and  feces  were  collected  and  their  amounts  and  composi- 
tions determined.  Thus  the  availability  of  the  nutrients  of  the  food 
and  the  outgo  of  nitrogen  from  the  body  were  found.  By  comparing 
th(i  amount  of  niti'ogen  thus  eliminated  with  the  amount  ingested  in 
the  food,  the  gain  or  loss  of  nitrogen  is  found. 


55 

Some  of  the  more  important  of  the  quantitative  data  of  the  experi- 
ments are  summarized  in  the  following  tables: 

Table  22. — Summary  of  average  time  spent  on  the  wJieel  and  distance  covered  per  day. 


Dura- 
tion in 
days. 

Working  time  per  day. 

Distance  covered  per  day. 

Rider. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Average. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Average. 

Miller 

6 
6 
3 

h.  m. 
23    10 

h.    TO. 
14     14 

h.    m. 
20      1 

18    27 

Miles. 
441.8 
402.0 

Miles. 
a  220. 5 
a  181. 9 

Miles. 
334  6 

Albert 

22    40         12    23 

303.8 

Pilkington     

287  7 

1 

o  Saturday,  see  p.  26. 

Table  23. — Summary  of  average  daily  income  and  outgo  of  nitrogen  and  lo.?s  of  body 

protein. 


Nitrogen. 

Equiva- 
lent loss 
of  body 
protein. 

Rider. 

In  food. 

In  feces. 

In  urine. 

Loss. 

Miller . 

Grams. 
a  29. 4 
629.1 
C36.0 

Grams. 
1.8 
2.5 
2.2 

Grams. 
36.2 
33.7 
38.9 

Grams. 
8.6 
7.1 
5.1 

Grams. 
53.8 

Albert 

44.4 

Pilkington  .                        .     .           

31  9 

a  This  includes  2.3  grams  of  nonproteid  nitrogen  in  meat  extract  and  beef  juice  omitted  in  table  of 
food  consumed. 

6  Includes  0.4  gram  of  nonproteid  nitrogen  in  meat  extract  and  beef  juice  omitted  in  table  of  food 
consumed. 

c  Includes  2.3  grams  of  nonproteid  nitrogen  in  meat  extract  and  beef  juice  omitted  in  table  of  food 
consumed. 

Table  24. — Summary  of  average  daily  amounts  of  protein  and  energy  in  the  food  eaten 
available  for  use  and  actually  metabolized. 


Protein. 

Energy. 

Rider. 

In  total 
food. 

In  avail- 
able food. 

Metabo- 
lized. 

In  total 
food. 

In  avail- 
able food. 

Metabo- 
lized, a 

Miller 

Grams. 
169 
179 
211 

Grams. 
158 
163 
197 

Gravis. 
223 
223 
243 

Calories. 
4,957 
6,300 
4,898 

Calories. 
4,547 
5,871 
4,323 

Calories. 
4,789 
6,066 
4,464 

Albert 

Pilkington 

a  Exclusive  of  that  derived  from  body  fat. 

These  tables,  which  summarize  only  the  more  important  data  reported 
and  discussed  in  the  different  sections  of  this  bulletin  above,  show 
some  facts  which  seem  to  us  of  considerable  interest.  Among  these 
are  (1)  the  long  duration  of  the  periods  of  work — often  22  to  24  hours 
per  day  and  averaging  18^  to  20  hours;  (2)  the  great  amount  of  work 
performed,  averaging  a  ride  of  over  300  miles  per  day;  (3)  the  fuel 
values  of  the  dietaries  which,  although  high  (about  60  per  cent  above 
the  average  found  for  American  farmers  and  mechanics),  are  not  greater 
than  have  been  found  in  a  number  of  dietaries  of  men  doing  only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  amount  of  work;  (4)  the  proportion  of  protein  in 
the  dietaries,  which  is  rather  high  in  each  case,  averaging  160  to  211 
grams  per  day,  or  nearl}^  twice  as  much  as  is  ordinarily  found  in  the 
dietaries  of  farmers  or  mechanics;  and  (5)  the  fact  that  the  sul)iects, 


56 

although  ingesting  such  large  amounts  of  protein,  drew  upon  that 
stored  in  the  body  to  such  an  extent  as  to  lose  considerable  quantities 
of  nitrogen,  the  amounts  thus  lost  averaging,  respectivelj^,  8.6,  7.1, 
and  5.1  grams  per  day  exclusive  of  the  nitrogen  eliminated  in  the 
perspiration. 

The  only  previous  studies  which  we  have  found  in  which  the  work 
was  similar  are  those  conducted  by  different  investigators  upon  the 
professional  pedestrian  Weston.  Taking  Miller  as  being  in  some 
respects  the  most  satisfactor}^  and  typical  of  the  subjects  studied  b}^  us, 
and  the  one  regarding  whom  our  data  are  the  most  nearly  accurate,  a 
comparison  with  Weston  may  be  of  interest. 

So  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  data  available.  Miller,  while  under 
our  observation,  worked  a  greater  proportion  of  the  time  and  exhibited 
a  greater  amount  of  mechanical  power  than  did  Weston  in  any  of  the 
periods  during  which  his  metabolism  was  observed.  His  diet  fur- 
nished considerably  more  protein  and  much  more  energy  than  did 
Weston's  in  1870,  but  in  1876,  when  Weston  took  sufficient  food  to 
keep  his  l)ody  from  losing  nitrogen,  his  dietary  was  considerabl}"  larger 
than  Miller's,  both  as  regards  protein  and  energ3^  The  total  nitrogen 
metabolized  by  Miller  was  not  greatly  different  from  what  was  found 
for  Weston  during  his  three  walks  in  1884.  In  1870  Weston  metabo- 
lized considerably  less  nitrogen. 

The  nutritive  ratio  in  Weston's  dietaries  was  quite  narrow,  1:4.2  to 
1:5.7.  In  Miller's  dietary  the  ratio  is  narrow  for  the  earlier  and  wide 
for  the  later  days  of  the  race  and  for  the  whole  period  is  1 : 5.9,  or  some- 
what narrower  than  the  averages  found  in  American  families  and  near 
the  average  found  for  boat  crews.  Albert's  dietary  shows  a  ratio  of 
1:7.3,  which  is  ver}"  close  to  that  of  the  average  of  American  dietary 
studies.  As  explained  above  (p.  43),  the  nutritive  ratio  msiy  be  greatly 
influenced  b}"  the  use  of  certain  foods  which  are  selected  because  of 
their  effects  upon  digestion  rather  than  nutrition. 

These  experiments  would  seem  to  favor  the  following  inferences: 
(1)  That  trained  athletes  undergoing  unusualh'  severe  exertion  demand 
a  largeh'  increased  supply  of  easih^  digested  food  of  such  kinds  as 
"agree"  with  the  subject,  and  that  the  availability  of  such  food  is  not 
greatl)"  affected  by  the  loss  of  sleep  and  almost  continuous  muscular 
exertion;  (2)  that  under  such  circumstances  the  metabolism  of  nitrogen 
as  well  as  that  of  energy  is  increased,  body  protein  being  drawn  upon 
unless  the  food  is  ver}-  abundant;  and  (3)  that  trained  athletes  appear 
to  be  a})le  to  lose  relativeh"  large  amounts  of  bod}"  nitrogen  without 
any  apparent  ill  effects. 

It  is  conceivable  that  ec^uallj"  severe  and  prolonged  exertion  might 
perhaps  be  undergone  without  increased  metabolism  of  nitrogen,  pro- 
vided the  supply  of  fuel  material  was  very  abundant.  This  question, 
however,  can  bo  sottlod  only  by  oxporimonts  in  which  the  diet  is  under 
control. 


r  MECHANICAL  WORK  AND  EFFICIENCY  OF  BICYCLERS. 

By  R.  C.  Cakpenter,  M.  M.  E., 
Professor  of  Experimental  Engineering,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

No  dynamometrical  measurement  was  made  of  the  mechanical  work 
performed  by  the  various  riders  who  were  the  subjects  of  the  investi- 
gations recorded  in  this  bulletin;  consequent!}'  an  exercise  of  judg- 
ment is  required  in  order  to  determine  the  probable  conditions  which 
affected  the  resistances  to  be  overcome. 

The  various  external  resistances  can  be  discussed  under  two  general 
heads:  (1)  That  of  the  air,  and  (2)  that  of  the  wheel. 

AIR  RESISTANCE. 

Resistmice  of  flat  surfaces. — Authorities  are  not  entirely  in  harmony 
as  to  the  resistance  produced  by  a  body  moving  through  the  air  with 
a  definite  velocit}^  Smeaton/  in  1750,  published  a  table  showing  the 
relation  between  wind  pressures  and  velocities  which  had  been  obtained 
by  experimenting.  This  table  corresponded  to  the  formula  j?  =  0.005 
a-y^,  in  which  p  equals  the  pressure  produced  per  square  foot,  a  the 
area  exposed  in  square  feet,  and  v  the  velocity  in  miles  per  hour.  This 
formula  was  used  extensively  to  aid  in  the  design  of  large  windmills, 
in  the  construction  of  which  Smeaton  was  very  expert.  A.  R.  Wolff  ^ 
deduces  from  theoretical  considerations  a  table  substantially  like  that 
given  by  Smeaton  for  a  temperature  of  45°  F.,  but  would  indicate  a 
pressure  10  per  cent  greater  at  0°  F.  and  10  per  cent  less  at  100°  F. 
Allen  Hazen^  states  that  experiments  with  whirling  arms,  with  plates 
exposed  to  direct  wind  and  on  locomotives,  have  shown  that  the  formula 
2j  —  0.0058  av^  is  correct  up  to  a  velocit}^  of  40  miles  per  hour.  Pro- 
fessor Kernot,  of  Melbourne,  in  some  recent  experiments  obtains 
^  =  0.005  at>^  which  agrees  with  Smeaton's  formula.  Various  other 
authorities  have  given  different  values  for  the  wind  pressure,  probably 
because  of  some  condition  not  noticed  or  corrected  which  affected  the 

1  Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book,  p.  492. 
^The  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover,  p.  9. 
^Engineering  News,  July  6,  1890. 


58 

results.  Thus,  Marton^  ^ives^>  =  0.004  av"^-^  Whipple  and  Dies,  jp  = 
0.0029  av^\  and  Crosby ^^=:0.  f  ai^  in  which  /*  is  a  constant  to  be 
determined. 

The  weight  of  evidence  would  indicate  that  the  wind  pressure  on 
plane  bodies  is  very  nearly  equal  to  the  amount  represented  by  the 
formula,  j9  =0.005  av  ^.. 

The  pressure  on  a  rounded  body  is  considerably  less  than  on  a  flat 
body;  thus  the  pressure  on  a  cylinder  or  cone  is  equal  to  one-half  that 
of  its  diametrical  planes. 

Air  resistance  of  rideTS. — The  air  resistance  which  a  rider  must  over- 
come depends  upon  his  body  exposure.  The  data  given  on  pages  20 
and  21  show  that  Miller  was  5  feet  4  inches  in  height,  and  had  a  waist 
measure  of  34  inches,  while  Albert  was  5  feet  8i  inches  in  height  with 
a  waist  measure  of  30  inches.  One  of  these  men  being  somewhat  the 
taller  and  the  other  somewhat  the  broader,  it  seems  quite  probable 
that  the  exposure  of  each  was  about  the  same.  This  exposure  would 
depend  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  position  in  which  they  rode, 
it  being  noticeably  smaller  in  the  scorching  position  than  when  riding 
bolt  upright.  These  men  are  reported  to  have  ridden  in  a  semiupright 
position,  as  would  probably  be  necessary  because  of  the  prolonged 
time  of  the  race.  The  total  exposure  of  a  man  of  similar  dimensions 
riding  bolt  upright  has  been  found  to  be  about  %\  square  feet,  in  the 
semiupright  position  6  square  feet,  and  in  a  scorching  position  a  little 
over  5  square  feet.  The  resistance  on  account  of  the  rounded  nature 
of  the  body  is  considered  by  the  best  authorities  about  equal  to  one- 
half  of  that  of  a  plane  of  equal  dimensions.  From  the  authors  best 
calculations  the  exposed  surface  in  the  semiupright  position  would  be 
equivalent  to  a  plane  of  about  3  square  feet.*  At  times  it  is  doubtless 
equivalent  to  as  much  as  4  square  feet,  and  during  short  intervals  of 
scorching  was  doubtless  much  reduced.  In  some  previous  calculations 
the  author  concluded  that  a  small  man  riding  for  a  short  distance  could 
bend  his  body  into  such  a  form  that  the  resistance  due  to  the  air  would 
not  exceed  1.5  square  feet  of  plane  surface.*  In  the  following  calcula- 
tions it  has  been  assumed  that  the  exposure  of  the  riders  was  equiva- 
lent to  3  square  feet  of  plane  surface. 

The  work  done  in  overcoming  the  wind  resistance  is  equal  to  the 
pressure  multiplied  by  the  distance  passed  through  in  a  given  time. 

1  Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book,  p.  492. 

''■  Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book,  p.  493. 

^According  to  unpuljlished  results  obtained  by  A.  P.  Bryant,  at  Middletown, 
Conn.,  the  total  exposure  of  a  liicycle  rider  of  about  the  build  of  Albert,  when  in 
different  positions,  as  ascertained  by  measuring  the  shadow  area,  was  as  follows: 
When  sitting  bolt  upright  it  was  equal  to  (j.4  square  feet;  when  sitting  semiupright, 
5.9  square  feet,  and  in  the  "scorching"  position,  5.2  square  feet. 

*See  L.  A.  W.  Bulletin,  May,  1898,  and  Sibley  Journal,  Dec,  1899,  p.  58. 


59 

Thus  if  the  pressure  is  expressed  by  the  formula  jp  —  0.006  av^,  the 
work  done  in  foot  pounds  per  minute,  w^  is  expressed  by  the  formula 
^^  =  0. 005  cm  ^  d.  From  this  latter  formula  the  following  table  of 
air  resistance  is  constructed,  showing  the  total  amount  of  work  done 


1 38  000 

36  000 
34  000 
32  000 
30  000 
U  28000 

h 

2 26 000 

2  24  000 

y 22 000 
Q. 

20  000 
UD 

^    18000 

D 

0    16  000 

[L 

14000 
h 

^    12  000 

L 

10  000 

8  000 

6  000 

4000 

2  000 

0 

— 

-n 

n 

~^ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

1 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

t 

V 

/ 

/ 

y 

^ 

y 

^ 



. — 

3         2         4         6         8         10        12        14        16        18       20       22       24      26       28    3C 
SPEED      IN      MILES      PER      HOUR. 

Fig.  2. — Curve  showing  wind  resistance  for  different  speeds,  expressed  in  foot-pounds  per  minute,  for 
3  square  feet  of  exposed  plane  surface. 

per  minute  with  an  equivalent  exposure  of  3  and  of  4  square  feet. 
The  results  expressed  in  the  last  two  columns  of  this  table  are  shown 
graphically  in  fig.  2.  This  diagram  is  more  convenient  for  actual  use 
than  the  values  in  the  table,  as  the  amounts  of  work  done  at  rates  inter- 
mediate between  those  given  in  the  table  are  readily  found. 


60 


Table  1. — Total  air  resistance  overcome  by  nders  at  different  sj^eeds. 


Wind  pressure  against 

Work  done  by  riders 

Speed  per 
hour. 

Wind 

pressure 

per  square 

foot. 

riders. 

per  minute. 

Exposure 

Exposure 

Exposure 

Exposure 

equivalent 

equivalent 

equivalent 

equivalent 

to  i  square 

to  3  square 

to  4  square 

to  3  square 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

Miles. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Ft.  pounds. 

Ft.  pounds. 

5 

0.125 

0.5000 

0.375 

220 

165 

n 

.281 

1. 125 

.843 

743 

562 

10 

.       .500 

2.000 

1.500 

1,760 

1,320 

16 

1.125 

4.500 

3.375 

5,940 

4,455 

20 

2.000 

7.000 

6.000 

14, 040 

10,530 

25 

3.125 

12.500 

9.375 

27, 500 

20, 625 

30 

4.500 

18.00 

13.500 

47, 520 

35,640 

The  data  here  used  give  onlj^  the  average  speed  for  each  day,  and 
the  results  are  therefore  computed  from  such  information.  As  the 
wind  resistance  increases  with  the  square  of  the  speed,  this  necessarily 
makes  some  error,  which  may  be  considered,  however,  as  compensated 
for  by  riding  in  a  bent  position  so  as  to  expose  less  surface  when 
moving  at  a  high  rate  of  speed.  It  seems  probable  from  the  habits  of 
most  riders  that  such  compensation  may  have  occurred;  if  so,  the 
results  will  not  be  greatly  in  error. 

WHEEL  RESISTANCE. 

The  author  has  made  numerous  experiments  on  various  types  of 
bic3^cles  to  determine  the  power  required  to  overcome  the  various 
mechanical  resistances.  Quite  an  extended  account  of  these  tests  was 
recenth^  published^  and  the  results  need  only  be  referred  to  in  this 
article. 

The  friction  of  the  driving  mechanism,  whether  chain  or  bevel  gear, 
absorbs  much  less  mechanical  force  than  that  of  the  tire.  The  best 
grades  of  chain  gear  require  less  mechanical  power  to  propel  them 
than  the  bevel  gear,  but  considering  the  great  amount  of  force 
absorbed  by  the  tire,  this  difference  is  not  material. 

The  following  table  shows  the  work,  in  foot-pounds,  required  to  over- 
come the  internal  (gear  and  bearing)  friction  of  five  grades  of  wheels, 
with  different  amounts  of  force  applied  to  the  pedals,  and  the  corre- 
sponding percentage  of  efficiency  of  the  wheels.  The  results  are 
deduced  from  a  series  of  experiments. 

1  Sibley  Journal,  Nov.  and  Dec,  1899,  pp.  58,  94. 


61 

Table  2. — Friciion  involved  in  the  driving  of  various  chain  and  chainlesshicijeles  at  a  s^jeed 

of  15  miles  per  hour. 


Total 

work 

per 

minute. 

Mean 
pedal 

Chain 
Fric- 

jear A. 

Chain  gear  B 
and  best 
chainles.s. 

Chain 

gear  C. 

Chainless  gear 
No.  1. 

Chainless  gear 
No.  2. 

Fric- 

Fric- 

Fric- 

Fric- 

sure, a 

tion 

Effi- 

tion 

Effi- 

tion 

Effi- 

tion 

Effi- 

tion 

Effi- 

min- 

ciency. 

min- 

ciency. 

min- 

ciency. 

min- 

ciency. 

per 
min- 

ciency. 

ute. 

ute. 

-  ute. 

ute. 

ute. 

Ft.  lbs. 

Ft.  lbs. 

Ft.  lbs. 

Per  ct. 

Ft.  lbs. 

Per  ct. 

M.  lbs. 

Per  ct. 

Ft.  lbs. 

Per  ct. 

Ft.  lbs. 

Per  ct> 

2,500 

10.2 

50 

98 

150 

94.0 

2.50 

90.0 

208 

91.6 

783 

67.5 

5,000 

20.4 

57 

98.8 

241 

95.8 

332 

94.3 

288 

94.25 

813 

83.8 

7,  .500 

30.6 

64 

99.2 

271 

96.4 

414 

94.5 

367 

9.5.1 

842 

88.8 

10,000 

40.8 

71 

99.3 

331 

96.7 

496 

95.1 

469 

95.3 

893 

91.0 

12,500 

51.0 

78 

99.4 

392 

96.9 

578 

9-5.4 

549 

96.6 

923 

92.6 

15, 000 

61.2 

86 

99.4 

453 

97.0 

660 

95.6 

640 

95.7 

965 

93.6 

17,500 

71.4 

93 

99.5 

514 

97.1 

742 

95.7 

723 

95. 85 

997 

94.4 

20,000 

81.6 

100 

99.5 

575 

97.2 

825 

95.8 

812 

9.5.94 

1,037 

94.8 

25,000 

102.2 

107 

99.6 

636 

97.3 

907 

96.2 

875 

96.5 

1,040 

95.9 

a  Mean  pedal  pressure  for  wheel  with  e^-inch  crank  and  with  70f  gear. 

The  following-  table  shows  in  a  similar  manner  the  amount  of  work 
lost  because  of  the  friction  of  the  tire  on  a  sing-le  wheel  when  working 
under  conditions  similar  to  those  under  which  the  data  in  the  preced- 
ing table  were  obtained.  In  estimating  the  total  resistance  of  the  bicy- 
cle, the  results  in  this  table  should  be  doubled  and  added  to  the  internal 
resistances  as  given  in  the  preceding  table. 


T.\BLE    3. 


-Tire  friction  of  rear  wheel  at  a  speed  of  15  miles i^er  hour,  with  different  amounts 
of  total  ivork. 


Total 
work  per 
minute. 

Mean 
pedal 
pres- 
sure.a 

Very  thin  racing 
tire. 

Heavy  racing  tire. 

Light  road  tire.     Ordinary  road  tire. 

Friction 
per  min- 
ute. 

Effi- 
ciency. 

Friction 
per  min- 
ute. 

Effi- 
ciency. 

Friction  i     ■„.«, 

! 

Friction 
per  min- 
ute. 

Effi- 
ciency. 

Ft.  lbs. 
2,500 
5,000 
7,500 
10,000 
12,500 
15,000 
20,000 
25,000 

Ft.  lbs. 
10. 22 
20.4 
30.6 
40.8 
51.0 
21.2 
81.6 
102.2 

Ft.  lbs. 
525 
608 
691  - 
774 
858 
941 
1,025 
1,108 

Per  ct. 
79.0 
87.8 
90.8 

'92.3 
93.2 
93.7 
94.8 
95.6 

Ft.  lbs. 
1,156 
1,219 
1,282 
1,345 
1,408 
1,471 
1,534 
1,596 

Per  ct. 
53.8 
76.7 
82.8 
86.6 
88.8 
90.2 
92.2 
93.6 

Ft.  lbs. 
1,626 
1,696 
1,767 
1,838 
1,909 
1,980 
2, 1.50 
2, 221 

Per  ct. 
35.0 
66.0 
75.5 
81.6 
84.8 
86.8 
89.2 
91.9 

Ft.  lbs. 
2,000 
2,108 
2,216 
2,324 
2,432 
2,541 
2,650 
2,758 

Per  ct. 
20.0 
57.8 
70.6 
76.7 
80.6 
83.2 
86.7 
88.9 

a  Mean  pedal  pressure  for  wheel  with  crank  6i  inches  long  and  with  70  J  gear. 

The  above  results  were  obtained  by  deducting  from  the  friction  of 
the  entire  wheel,  with  tire,  the  friction  of  the  same  wheel  without  tire. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  the  riders  in  the  six -day  races  would  select 
the  best  grades  of  bicycles  and  those  which  were  propelled  with  the 
least  expenditure  of  power.  The  author  has  found  that  riders  are 
generally  expert  in  selecting  wheels  which  have  the  least  friction. 
Hence  it  appears  that  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  the  force  required  to 
propel  the  wheels  would  correspond  to  the  lowest  results  in  Table  3, 
and  those  next  lowest  in  Table  2.  This  latter  supposition  is  believed 
to  be  rather  more  probable,  for  the  reason  that  the  lowest  results  in 
Table  2  are  to  be  considered  as  exceptional. 


62 

For  the  purpose  of  facilitating-  computations  of  results  a  diagram 
(fig.  3)  has  been  prepared,  on  which  is  shown  the  resistance  in  foot- 
pounds per  minute  due  to  gearing  and  also  to  the  best  racing  tire,  cor- 
responding to  a  total  resistance  which  is  given  at  the  bottom  of  the 
diagram.  This  diagram  is  constructed  for  a  speed  of  15  miles  per 
hour.  For  a  speed  greater  than  15  miles  the  resistance  is  increased  in 
each  case  by  an  amount  which  was  determined  by  test  and  was  equal  to 
the  amount  given  in  the  table  multiplied  b}^  one-ninetieth  of  the  increase 
in  speed.  Thus,  if  the  amount  in  excess  of  15  miles  per  hour  be  de- 
noted b}^  X,  the  increased  resistance  would  be  that  given  in  the  diagram 
times  X,  which  is  to  be  added  to  the  value  obtained  from  the  diagram. 
Experiments  made  in  Sibley  College  laboratory  show  that  for  a  differ- 
ence in  weight  of  15  pounds  the  total  resistance  does  not  increase  more 


.1250 
U 

^1000 

CCLJ 
b-D- 
„500 

^8250 

OQ. 

~^ 

~^ 

n 

. 

— 

— — 

•^ 

— ' 

TRi 

fA 

St£ 

?A( 

^ 

n 

. — 

— 

— 

^ 

fW 

^ 

. 

- 

. 

— 

— 

'" 

, , 

'    f 

^ 

IaBI 

X' 

J. 

— 

fa 

aFn 

G 

V\h    - 

-- 

-— 

-^ 

"' 

EOOO      4000     6000    8000     lOOGO     12000    14000    16000    18000    20000    ?2000    24000    26000    28000 
TOTAL   WORK.      FOOT    POUNDS     PER     MINUTE 

Fig.  3. — Curves  showing  bicycle  resistance,  speed  15  miles  per  hour. 

than  2  per  cent.     As  this  correction  is  smaller  than  the  probable  error 
of  computation,  it  has  not  been  considered  best  to  make  use  of  it. 

From  data  given  earlier  in  this  bulletin  (pp.  23-27)  we  know  the 
distance  ridden  each  day  and  the  time  spent  in  riding,  from  which 
we  may  compute  the  average  speed  per  hour.  By  use  of  figs.  1  and  2 
the  total  resistance  due  to  gear  and  tire  friction  and  to  wind  pressure 
may  be  computed.  These  results  are  shown  in  Tables  1  and  5.  The 
values  in  the  fifth  column  for  resistance  due  to  wind  pressure  are 
taken  directly  from  fig.  2  at  the  average  speed  per  hour.  Those  in 
the  fifth  column,  bicycle  resistance,  are  found  from  fig.  3  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  The  total  resistance  will  be  equal  to  the  wind  resist- 
ance plus  the  gear  resistance  and  the  tire  resistance^  of  both  wheels. 

1  In  the  computation  for  the  total  resistance  of  the  bicycle  the  friction  work  of  the 
gearinj;  and  the  friction  work  of  the  two  wheels  have  been  added.  In  a  previous  cal- 
culation, to  which  reference  has  been  made,  the  total  wheel  resistance  was  taken  as 
that  of  th(!  <iearin<j:  plus  that  shown  by  the  dynamometer  for  one  wheel,  it  being  at  that 
time  thought  that  the  work  of  friction  of  the  rear  wheel  when  running  on  the  dyna- 
mometer was  nearly  equal  to  that  of  two  wheels  on  a  level  surface,  for  the  reason 


63 

The  total  resistance  in  foot-pounds  per  minute  multiplied  b}"  60  gives 
the  amount  of  work  done  each  hour,  and  this  latter  quantity  multi- 
plied by  the  number  of  hours  spent  on  the  wheel  gives  the  total 
amount  of  work  done  during  the  day.  The  heat  equivalent  of  the 
work  done  is  computed  by  dividing  the  total  number  of  foot-pounds 
of  work  by  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  1  calorie — 3,088  foot-pounds. 
From  the  data  and  computations  given  in  Table  4  it  would  appear  that 
the  heat  equivalent  of  the  average  amount  of  work  done  b}^  Miller  per 
day  was  3,102  calories,  while  the  total  energy  of  the  food  was  only 
4,957  calories.  Even  allowing  for  a  considerable  consumption  of  body 
fat,  the  ratio  of  heat  equivalent  of  work  done  to  total  energy  of  food 
and  body  tissue  consumed  must  be  extremel}"  large.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  "work  done"  is  the  extreme  muscular  work,  i.  e.,  the  mechan- 
ical energy  applied  to  the  pedals  of  the  wheels. 

Table  4. — Energy  stqyplied  and  ivork  done  (a)  by  C.  W.  Miller. 


Dis- 
tance, 
cover- 
ed each 

day. 

Time 
spent 

on 

wheel 

each 

day. 

Aver- 
age 

speed 
per 

hour. 

Resistance  overcome 
per  minute. 

Total  work 

done  each 

day. 

Heat 
equiva- 
lent of 

work 
done. 

Total  en- 

Date. 

B^cy-     Wind. 

Total. 

ergy  m 
food. 

Dec    5  

Miles. 
441.8 
366.7 
334.1 
316.5 
327.8 
220. 5 

Hours. 
23.16 
21.16 
20. 18 
19.72 
19.62 
14.23 

Miles. 
19.07 
17.32 
16.  .55 
16.05 
16.71 
15. 46 

Foot-  1    Foot- 
pounds, pounds. 
1,927  1    9.000 

Foot- 
pounds. 
10, 927 
8,442 
7,440 
6,867 
7,587 
6,458 

Foot- 
pounds. 
15, 184, 159 
10,717,963 
9, 008, 352 
8,125,034 
8,931,416 
5,513,840 

Calories. 
4,917 
3,471 
2,917 
2,631 
2,892 
1,786 

Calories. 
5,900 

6     

1,692 
1,590 
1,542 
1,587 
1, 508 

6,750 
5, 850 
5,325 
6,000 
4.950 

4,108 

7 

6, 577 

8 

2,890 

9 

4,238 

10 

6,788 

Average  6  days 
Average  5  days 

334.6 
357.4 

19.68 
20.77 

17.00 
17.20 

9,580,127 
10,393,385 

3,102 
3,366 

b  4, 993 

1 

1 

a  Exposure  assumed  to  be  equivalent  to  3  square  feet. 

6  The  energy  in  the  food  for  individual  days  is  computed  by  use  of  factors  as  explained  above  (p.  — ). 
The  average  for  the  six  days  was  determined  by  burning  samples  of  the  foods  in  the  bomb  calorimeter, 
and  hence  differs  slightly  from  the  computed  "average. 


that  the  power  was  absorbed  by  a  wheel  of  about  the  diameter  of  the  bicycle  wheel 
on  which  the  rear  wheel  rested  and  which  was  put  in  motion  by  the  rear  wheel. 

Subsequent  investigation  seems  to  indicate  that  the  track  friction  is  practically 
independent  of  the  size  of  the  dynamometer  wheel  which  absorbed  the  Avork,  and 
consequently  to  obtain  the  full  resistance  of  the  bicycle  it  is  necessary  to  add  that 
caused  by  the  gearing  to  twice  that  due  to  one  wheel  as  shown  by  the  dynamometer. 
This  hypothesis  may  be  slightly  in  error  and  may  make  the  tire  resistance  greater 
than  that  actually  overcome,  but  the  correction  is  not  relatively  a  large  one,  although 
sufficient  to  reduce  the  total  resistance  about  7  per  cent  and  make  a  corresponding 
reduction  in  the  efiiciency  of  the  rider. 


m 


Table  5. — Energy  supplied  and  v:ork  done  {a)  by  Frank  Albert. 


Dis- 
tance 
cover- 
ed each 
day. 

Time 
spent 

on 
wheel 
each 
day. 

Aver- 
age 

speed 
per 

hour. 

Resistance  overcome 
per  minute. 

Total  work 

done  each 

day. 

Heat 
equiva- 
lent of 
work 
done. 

Total  en- 

Date. 

Bicy- 
cle. 

Wind. 

Total. 

ergy  in 
food. 

Dec.  5 

Miles. 
402.0 

Hours. 

9'2_  fifi 

Miles. 
17.75 
17.40 
17.10 
16.60 
15.85 
14.60 

Foot- 
pounds. 
1,745 
1,703 
1,683 
1,602 
1,550 
1,420 

Foot- 
pounds. 
7,200 
6,870 
6, 550 
5,925 
5, 2.50 
4,125 

Foot- 
pounds. 
8,945 
8,  .573 
8,233 
7,527 
6,800 
5,545 

Foot- 

pnunds. 

12, 161, 622 

10,946,006 

10, 215,  .506 

7,772,380 

5,916,000 

4, 118, 826 

Calories. 
3,938 
3,545 
3,308 
2,  .517 
1, 916 
1,334 

Caloriesy 
5  862 

6 

371. 3       21. 28 
352. 7       20. 68 

285. 3  17. 21 

229. 4  14. 50 
181.9       12.38 

4,387 
6,563 
7,977 

7 

8                 .-   .. 

9 

7,704 
6,124 

10 

Average  6  davs 

303.8  !     18.11 
328.1       19.26 

16.80 
17.05 

8, 521, 723 
9,402,303 

2,760 
3,045 

66,307 

Average  5  days 

a  Exposure  assumed  to  be  equivalent  to  3  square  feet. 

6  The  energy  in  the  food  for  individual  days  is  computed  by  use  of  factors  as  explained  above.  The 
average  for  the  six  days  was  determined  by  burning  samples  of  the  foods  in  the  bomb  calorimeter, 
and  hence  differs  slightly  from,  the  computed  average. 

The  figures  in  the  last  column  of  Tables  4  and  6  show  the  total 
energ}"  in  the  food.  The  values  for  the  individual  days  are  computed 
by  use  of  factors  for  heats  of  combustion  of  the  difi'erent  nutrients  in 
mixed  diet  which  were  proposed  by  Atwater  and  Bryant,^  which  allow 
5.65  calories  of  energy  for  every  gram  of  protein  in  the  food,  9.4  calo- 
ries for  every  gram  of  fat,  and  4.1  calories  for  every  gram  of  carbohy- 
drates. The  average  energy  in  the  food  for  the  six  daj'^s  was  found  by 
actual  determination  of  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  foods  consumed, 
but  the  computations  were  not  made  for  individual  days.  The  average 
for  the  six  days  of  the  study  is  therefore  that  actually  determined,  while 
the  amounts  for  the  individual  days  are  computed  approximately  by 
use  of  the  factors.  By  reference  to  Table  4  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  total  work  done  by  Miller  is  computed  to  have  been  over  15,000,000 
foot-pounds,  or  7,500  foot-tons,  on  the  first  day,  and  5,500,000  foot- 
pounds, or  2,750  foot-tons,  on  the  last  day  of  the  race.  The  corre- 
sponding heat  equivalent  of  the  work  done  is  computed  by  dividing 
the  total  number  of  foot-pounds  of  work  by  the  mechanical  equivalent 
of  one  calorie,  i.  e.,  3,088  foot-pounds,  and  ranges  from  4,917  calories 
on  the  first  day  of  the  race  to  1,786  calories  on  the  last  day.  The 
average  heat  equivalent  of  the  work  done  in  the  six  days  amounted  to 
3,102  calories.  At  the  same  time,  the  food  consumed  furnished  4,957 
calories,  making  an  apparent  efliciency  of  over  60  per  cent.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  there  was  a  greater  or  less  consumption  of 
body  fat  during  the  experiment,  the  energy  of  which  should  be  added 
to  that  of  the  food  consumed  in  estimating  the  total  income,  thus 
diminishing  the  apparent  efficiency.  How  much  this  loss  of  body  fat 
amounted  to  can  not  be  estimated  for  the  reasons  already  pointed  out 
(see  p.  52).  If  we  assume  that  the  equivalent  exposure  of  the  bicycle 
rider  was  4  square  feet,  computations  similar  to  those  recorded  in 


'  Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1899,  ]) 
recently  determined.     See  p.  39. 


73.     These  factors  differ  from  tliose  more 


65 

Table  4  serve  to  show  that  the  total  work  done  each  day  ranged  from 
nearly  20,000,000  to  nearly  7,000,000  foot-pounds,  and  the  correspond- 
ing heat  equivalent  from  6,381  to  3,256  calories,  averaging  3,994 
calories. 

The  amount  of  work  done  by  Albert  was  slightly  less  than  that  by 
Miller,  ranging  from  12,000,000  to  1,000,000  foot-pounds  per  day  with 
a  corresponding  range  in  heat  equivalent  from  3,938  to  1,334  calories. 
The  average  heat  equivalent  of  the  work  done  per  day  during  the  six 
days  is  2,760  calories,  and  the  average  energy  in  the  food  as  found  by 
actual  determination  of  the  heat  of  combustion  is  6,307  calories,  mak- 
ing an  apparent  efficiency  of  nearly  45  per  cent.  The  same  uncer- 
tainty as  to  the  amount  of  body  fat  consumed  exists  in  this  as  in  the 
previous  case,  so  that  we  can  reach  only  a  very  approximate  value  for 
the  efficiency  of  the  rider.  If  the  equivalent  exposure  of  the  rider  is 
assumed  as  equal  to  4  square  feet,  the  total  amount  of  work  done  each 
day  varied  from  nearly  16,000,000  to  a  little  over  5,000,000  foot- 
pounds, with  a  corresponding  range  in  heat  equivalent  from  5,088  to 
1,686  calories,  with  an  average  for  the  six  days  of  3,547  calories. 

Regarding  the  probable  error  of  the  computations  given  in  Tables  4 
and  5  the  author  is  prepared  to  say  but  little.  The  factors  determin- 
ing the  wind  pressure  upon  subjects  are  not  definitel}^  known,  and  the 
pressure  may  have  been  greater  or  less  than  that  assumed.  When  one 
rider  followed  another  it  would  be  less.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
extremely  probable  that  the  recorded  distance  traveled  is  less  than  the 
actual  distance,  since  the  riders,  much  of  the  time,  especially  when 
riding  in  bunches,  were  a  greater  or  less  distance  outside  of  the  ''pole" 
or  line  which  was  taken  for  the  measurement  of  the  track.  Further- 
more, the  calculations  make  no  account  of  increase  of  w^ork  that  must 
have  occurred  in  ascending  the  slight  grade  at  each  end  of  the  course 
which  would  be  brought  about  by  the  travel  of  the  rider  on  a  track 
some  distance  from  the  pole.  These  conditions  should  not  change  the 
efficiency  more  than  10  per  cent.  One  thing  seems  certain;  the  amount 
of  work  performed  each  day  b}^  the  riders  was  very  large  indeed,  and 
the  efficiency  appears  to  have  been  noticeabl}^  greater  than  that  obtained 
by  the  best  steam  or  oil  engines.  The  best  record  of  an}^  heat  engine 
is  probably  that  of  the  Deisal  motor.  This  has  produced,  in  a  test  by 
James  Denton,  1  horsepower  on  the  brake  for  a  consumption  of  0.54 
pound  of  kerosene  oil.  This  would  be  equivalent  to  8,300  heat  units 
per  horsepower,  the  oil  being  valued  at  18,604  heat  units  per  pound; 
in  this  case  we  should  have  an  efficiency  of  transformation  equal  to 
about  33.7  per  cent.  The  best  record  of  a  steam  engine  is  the  Nord- 
berg  pumping  engine  at  Pittsburg,  which  shows  an  efficiency  per 
indicated  horsepower,  on  the  basis  of  total  heat  supplied,  of  22.7  per 
cent.  Per  delivered  horsepower  this  amount  would  probably  be  10 
per  cent  less. 

20695— No.  98—01 5 


66 

With  the  exception  of  the  Deisal  motor  the  best  record  of  any  oil 
engine  per  delivered  horsepower  is  about  16.5  per  cent  efficiency. 

From  this  comparison  it  would  seem  that  the  human  machine  is 
decidedly  superior  to  any  heat  engine  which  has  been  developed  in 
form  so  as  to  be  of  any  value  for  practical  use. 

CONCLUSIONS  AND  REMARKS. 

The  calculations  would  indicate  that  both  Miller  and  Albert  pos- 
sessed great  physical  strength  and  endurance  and  that  Miller  must 
have  been  a  remarkable  phj'sical  giant.  His  results  seem  unprece- 
dented, especially  W'hen  expressed  numerically.  Dr.  R.  H,  Thurston^ 
states  that  the  average  work  of  a  man  is  to  be  considered  as  about 
2,000,000  foot-pounds  per  da3%  rising  occasionally  to  an  amount  50  per 
cent  greater.  Considering  2,000,000  foot-pounds  per  day  as  the  work 
of  an  average  man,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  energy  exerted  b}^  Miller 
during  live  davs  of  the  race  was  more  than  live  times  greater  than  this 
amount,  and  that  exerted  by  Albert  was  nearl}"  as  much.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  the  calculated  results  make  the  energy  expended  greater 
than  it  should  be,  although  a  reexamination  of  the  calculations  fails  to 
show  any  reason  for  reducing  the  results.  It  is  possible  that  the  wind 
exposure  ma}'  have  been  less  than  assumed,  although  it  is  not  believed 
that  the  equivalent  plane  surface  could  have  been  less  than  2.6  square 
feet.  Had  the  exposure  been  as  small  as  this,  which  is  hardly  proba- 
ble, the  resistance  due  to  the  wind  W'Ould  have  been  reduced  slightly 
over  13  per  cent.  The  wheel  resistance,  as  previously  remarked,  may 
be  slightly  high.  The  total  of  these  corrections  would  reduce  the 
energy  expended  by  about  11  per  cent.  It  is  believed,  however,  that 
the  results  given  are  the  most  probable. 

As  before  stated,  the  only  accurate  measurement  of  the  energy 
developed  by  the  bicycle  riders  would  be  that  obtained  with  a  dj^na- 
mometer  applied  to  the  pedal  of  the  bicvcle,  and  at  the  present  time 
such  data  are  not  available. 

Most  of  the  data  which  are  published  pertaining  to  the  work  accom- 
plished by  a  man  relate  to  the  energy  which  can  be  applied  day  after 
day  under  usual  working  conditions  and  is  much  less  than  might  be 
applied  when  a  man  was  exerting  himself  to  the  utmost.  Under  the 
conditions  of  the  race  the  amount  of  energy  exerted  can  be  considered 
about  the  limit  of  human  strength  and  endurance.  This  is  reasonabl}' 
many  times  greater  than  would  be  exerted  by  the  ordinary  laborer 
working  under  the  routine  of  his  usual  occupation. 

Believing  that  additional  data  regarding  the  average  energ}^  equiva- 
lent to  the  day's  work  of  a  man  would  be  interesting,  the  statement  of 

'The  Animal  as  a  Prime  Mover,  Smithsonian  Report  for  1896. 


67 

a  few  authorities  relating  to  this  subject  is  presented  in  the  following- 
table: 

Table  6. — Poioer  of  men. 


Kind  of  work. 


Foot- 
pounds 
per  min- 
ute for 

short 
periods. 


Foot- 
pounds per 
day  (aver- 


Authority. 


Bicycle  riding,  10  seconds 19,000 

-"■-■-  ■  9,080 

8,750 
6,000 
6,640 
5,000 
4,080 
4, 032 
3,987 
3,808 
3,667 
3,360 
3,830 
2,400 


Bicycle  riding,  Ic  seconds. 
Bicycle  riding,  96  seconds. 

Bicycle  riding,  1  hour 

Walking  backward  and  forward  on  a  tilting  lever. 

Soldier  carrj-ing  knapsack  (Ruhlman) 

Men  raising  beetle 

Climbing  stairs  for  8  hours 

Man  walking  for  10  hours 

Man  lifting  heavy  hammer  5  hours 

Pushing  on  lever  in  circular  path 

Working  on  treadmill  7  hours 

Average  work  of  man 

Raising  water  with  pump 


3, 984, 000 
3, 000, 000 
1, 224, 000 
1,  935, 360 
2, 394, 000 
1, 142, 400 
2, 200, 000 
1,480,000 
2, 000, 000 
1,000,000 


J.  B.  Denton  a. 
Do. 
Do. 

R.  C.  Carpenter  h. 
Trautwein  c. 
Thurston  d. 
Trautwein  c. 
Weisbach  d. 

Do. 

Do. 
Trautwein  c. 

Do. 
Thurston  e. 
Trautwein  c. 


a  Iron  Age,  Oct.,  1897,  p.  14. 
6  Sibley  Journal,  1899,  p.  59. 
cTrautwein's  Engineer's  Pocketbook,  p.  607 


d Mechanics  of  Engineering, 2  (1877),  p.  74. 
e  The  Animal  as  a  Prime  Mover,  Smithsonian  Report. 
1896. 


It  is  quite  generall}'  believed  that  the  amount  of  energj^  expended  by 
a  laborer  is  nearly  inversely  proportional  to  the  length  of  the  working- 
da}^  taken,  of  course,  with  certain  limitations.  This  would  indicate 
that  the  amount  of  energy  expended  during  a  day  of  twenty-four 
hours  might  be  uniform,  which  is,  of  course,  scarcely  ever  true. 


o 


Bui. 

67. 

Bui. 

6S. 

Bui. 

m. 

Bui. 

71, 

Bui. 

75. 

Bui. 

84. 

Bui. 

85. 

Bui. 

89. 

Bui. 

91. 

LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS  ON 
THE  FOOD  AND  NUTRITION  OF  MAN-Continue.l. 

Studies  on  Bread  and  Bread  Making.  By  Harry  >Snyder  and  L.  A.  Voorhees. 
Pp.  51.     Price,  10  cents. 

A  Description  of  Some  Chinese  Vegetable  Food  Materials  and  Their  Nutri- 
tive and  Economic  Value.     By  AV.  C.  Blasdale.     Pp.  48.     Price,  10  cents. 

Experiments  on  the  Metabolism  of  Matter  and  Energy  in  the  Human  Body. 
By  W.  O.  Atwater  and  F.  (1.  Benedict,  with  the  cooperation  of  A.  AV.  Smith 
and  A.  P.  Bryant.     Pp.  112.     Price,  10  cents^. 

Dietary  Studies  of  Negi-oes  in  Eastern  Virginia  in  1897  and  1898.  By  H.  B. 
Frissell  and  Isabel  Bevier.     Fp.  45.     Price,  5  cents. 

Dietary  Studies  of  University  Boat  Crews.  By  AV.  0.  Atwater  and  A.  P. 
Bryant.     Pp.  72.     Price,  5  cents. 

Nutrition  Investigations  at  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
1896-1898.     By  M.  E.  Jaffa.     Pp.  39.     Price,  5  cents. 

A  Report  of  Investigations  on  the  Digestibility  and  Nutritive  A^alue  of 
Bread.     By  Chas.  D.  Woods  and  L.  H.  Merrill.     Pp.  51.     Price,  5  cents. 

Experiments  on  the  Effect  of  Muscular  \A"ork  upon  the  Digestibility  of 
Food  and  the  MetaboUsm  of  Nitrogen.  Conducted  at  the  Universitv  of 
Tennessee,  1897-1899.     By  C.  E.  Wait.     Pp.  77.     Price,  5  cents. 

Nutrition  Investigations  at  tlie  Universitv  of  Illinois,  North  Dakota  Agri- 
cultural College,  and  Lake  Erie  College,  Ohio,  1896-1900.  By  H.  S. 
Grindley  and  J.  L.  Sammis,  E.  F.  Ladd,  and  Isabel  Bevier  and  Elizabeth 
G.  Sprague.     Pp.  42.     Price,  5  cents. 

farmers'  bulletins. 

Bui.    23.  Foods:  Nutritive  A^alue  and  Cost.     By  AV.  O.  Atwater.     Pp.32. 

Bui.    34.  Meats:  Comiwsition  and  Cooking.     Bv  C.  D.  AVoods.     Pp.  29. 

Bui.    74.  Milk  as  Food.     Pp.  39. 

Bui.    85.  Fish  as  Food.     By  C.  F.  Langworthy.     Pp.  30. 

Bui.    93.  Sugar  as  Food.     By  Mary  H.  Abel.     Pp.  27. 

Bui.  112.  Bread  and  the  PrineiiDles  of  Bread  Making.    By  Helen  AV.  Atwater.    Pp.38. 

Bui.  12].  Beans,  Peas,  and  other  Legumes  as  Food.     By  Mary  H.  Abel.     Pp.  32. 

Bui.  128.  Eggs  and  Their  Uses  as  Food.     By  C.  F.  Langworthy.     Pp.  32. 

CIRCULAR. 

Cir.      46.   Foods  for  Man.     By  C.  F.  Langworthy.     Pp.  10. 

SEPARATES. 

Food  and  Diet.     By  W.  O.  Atwater.     Reprinted  from  Yearbook  of  Department  of 

Agriculture  for  1894.     Pp.  44. 
Some  Results  of  Dietary  Studies  in  the  United  States.     By  A.  P.  Bryant.     Reprinted 

from  Yearbook  of  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1898.    Pp.  14. 
])evelopment  of  the  Nutrition  Investigations  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.     By 

A.  C.  True  and  R.  D.  Milner.     Reprinted  from  Yearbook  of  Department 

(.f  Agriculture  for  1899.     Pp.16. 


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